<p>Wheatley Place is a neighborhood in South Dallas, Texas, that is designated as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places  and as a somewhat smaller Dallas Landmark District by the city. Included among the buildings that compose the historic district is the Juanita J. Craft Civil Rights House, a museum that was the former home of Dallas civil rights pioneer, Juanita Craft. The house is a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark and is included within the NRHP district but not the municipal landmark district.</p><br>
<p>Predominantly constructed as a neighborhood for African-Americans, the area was named for Phillis Wheatley, an African-American poet from the 18th century, who was the first African-American author of a published book of poetry.</p><br>
<p>The district was listed on the National Register on March 23, 1995, and the Dallas City Council designated Wheatley Place as a historic landmark district on October 25, 2000.</p><br>
<p>The Gamble House, also known as the David B. Gamble House, is a historic American Craftsman home in Pasadena, California, designed by the architectural firm Greene and Greene. Constructed in 1908–1909 as a home for David B. Gamble, son of the Procter & Gamble founder James Gamble, it is today a National Historic Landmark, a California Historical Landmark, and open to the public for tours and events.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>One major feature of the Gamble House was to be distinct from many other houses nearby, such as the Neoclassical style Fenyes House (Robert Farquhar, 1906–1907). Considering that many Greene and Greene projects have been altered to some degree and stripped of their original furnishings designed for them by the architects, this house has been well maintained throughout its exterior and interior.</p><br>
<p>David and Mary Gamble lived in the house during the winter months until their deaths in 1923 and 1929, respectively. Mary&#39;s younger sister Julia lived in the house until her death in 1943. Cecil Huggins Gamble and his wife Louise Gibbs Gamble lived in the house beginning in 1946. They briefly considered selling it, until prospective buyers spoke of painting the interior woodwork white. In 1966, the Gamble family turned the house over to the city of Pasadena in a joint agreement with the University of Southern California (USC) School of Architecture. The Gamble House was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977. Today, two 5th-year USC architecture students live in the house full-time; the selected students change annually.</p><br>
<p>The Gamble House was a target for criticism during the 20th century. However, after the Second World War it received newfound popularity. It was included in a list of all-time top 10 houses in Los Angeles in a Los Angeles Times survey of experts in December 2008.</p><br>
<p>The exterior of the house gained worldwide exposure as the Brown Mansion, the home (in 1955) of Emmett "Doc" Brown in the 1985 movie Back to the Future and more prominently in the 1990 Back to the Future III.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, the house was featured on This Old House with then host Bob Vila in 1987.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Originally built as a winter residence for David and Mary Gamble, the three-story Gamble House is commonly described as America&#39;s Arts and Crafts masterpiece. Its style shows influence from traditional Japanese aesthetics and a certain California spaciousness born of available land and a permissive climate. The Arts and Crafts Movement in American Craftsman style architecture was focused on the use of natural materials, attention to detail, aesthetics, and craftsmanship.</p><br>
<p>The house is located on a grassy knoll overlooking Pasadenas Arroyo Seco, a broad, seasonally dry river bed. Because of the Gambles’ attraction to the environment, the Greenes designed the house to complement the rustic setting. The houses design reflected the Gambles&#39; love of nature as flowers and trees were brought to the interior—creating pictures in wood, metal, art glass, and semi-precious stone. The building itself appears enmeshed with the landscape, achieved by a blend of man-made materials such as brick and rough dash-coat stucco and natural materials such as granite river stones and creeping fig that grows up onto the foundations of the terrace and steps.</p><br>
<p>The house displays a strong influence of Japanese architecture. The abstraction of clouds and mist as well as the other "oriental" characteristics applied to the house&#39;s doors, windows, screens, beams, chair, lanterns, and more were another way that the house showed its emphasis on nature as "forms found in nature are the inspiration for these patterns."</p><br>
<p>Another way the Greenes showed off the Gamble Houses emphasis on nature was through the "theme of three," which was composed of three components that could be seen in every room. The theme of three grouped objects together, sometimes symmetrically arranged, but often not. The use of asymmetry alongside the classical balance reflects natures welcoming of variety in proportions.</p><br>
<h3>Interiors</h3><br>
<p>The rooms of the home were built using multiple kinds of woods. Teak, maple, oak, Port Orford cedar, and mahogany surfaces are placed in sequences to bring out contrasts of color, tone, and grain. Inlay in the custom furniture designed by the architects coordinates with the inlay in the tiled fireplace surrounds, and the expressed, interlocking joinery on the main staircase was left exposed.</p><br>
<p>One of the wooden panels in the entry hall is actually a concealed door leading to the kitchen, and another panel opens to a coat closet.</p><br>
<p>The Greenes used an experienced team of local contractors who had worked together for them in Pasadena on several previous homes, including the Hall brothers, Peter and John, who were responsible for the high quality of the woodworking in the house and its furniture. The Gamble family crest, a crane and trailing rose, was integrated in part or whole in many locations around the house.</p><br>
<p>The woods, the low and horizontal room shapes, and the natural light that filters through the art glass exterior windows coexist with a relatively traditional plan, in which most rooms are regularly shaped and organized around a central hall. Although the house is not as spatially adventurous as the contemporary works of Frank Lloyd Wright, or even of the earlier New England "Shingle style," its mood is casual and its symmetries tend to be localized.</p><br>
<p>Ceiling heights are different on the first (810") and second floors (88") and in the den (9&#39;10") and the forms and scales of the spaces are constantly shifting, especially as one moves from the interior of the house to its second-floor semi-enclosed porches and its free-form terraces, front and rear. The third floor was planned as a billiard room but was used as an attic by the Gamble family.</p><br>
<h3>Rooms</h3><br>
<p>The living room was designed without any entry doors so that the room would be as open and inviting as possible. It also consisted of a spacious sitting room, which was decorated with five rugs that were designed by Charles Greene using watercolor. Across from the fireplace, there is a window that leads to the terrace, which overlooks the garden. The expansive window was designed to let light brighten the room during the late afternoon. At the far end of the room lie bookcases, a small games table, and a piano to offer entertainment and leisure. The piano was designed by the Greenes to blend into the paneling of the room.</p><br>
<p>On the west wing of the house, the dining room is surrounded by the terrace and the garden on three sides. According to Gamble House: Greene and Greene, by Edward R. Bosley, the room was designed to offer "nature to the indoors."</p><br>
<h3>Exterior and gardens</h3><br>
<p>Outdoor space was as important as the interior spaces. Exterior porches are found off three of the second-floor bedrooms and were used for sleeping or entertaining.</p><br>
<p>The main terrace is beyond the rear facade of the residence. It has patterned brick paving with planting areas, a large curvilinear pond, and garden walls made with distinctive clinker bricks and boulders. Paths made with large water-worn stones from the nearby Arroyo Seco are reminiscent of running brooks crossing the lawns. The overall landscape design and constructed garden elements are integrated with the architectural proportion and detailing. The triple front door and transom feature a Japanese black pine motif in plated (more than one layer) leaded art glass, highlighting the Asian influence that runs throughout the house.</p><br>
<h2>California Historical Landmark Marker</h2><br>
<p>California Historical Landmark Marker NO. 871 at the site reads:</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<h2>David B. and Mary H. Gamble Professorship</h2><br>
<p>The Gamble family established a professorship at nearby Occidental College. The professorship has been held by Buddhist Studies expert, Dr. Dale Wright, and is currently held by Historian of Late Antiquity Dr. Kristi Upson-Saia.</p><br>
<p>Locke, also known as Locke Historic District, is an unincorporated community in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta of California, United States. The 14 acre was first developed between 1893 and 1915 approximately one mile north of the town of Walnut Grove in Sacramento County.</p><br>
<p>Locke is a primarily agricultural community near State Route 160, south of Sacramento. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 and was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 1990 as a unique example of a historic Chinese American rural community. The population as of 2021 was estimated to be about 100, with Chinese Americans no longer forming the majority.</p><br>
<p>The village of Lockeport (shortened to "Locke" in 1920) began where the Sacramento Valley Railway and Union Pacific Railroads merged at the southwest corner of the 490 acre deeded on July 6, 1883, to founder, George W. Locke, and his mercantile business partner, Samuel P. Lavenson. Both men were lured in their youth by the California Gold Rush.</p><br>
<p>After a fire destroyed the Chinatown of nearby Walnut Grove in 1915, many Chinese immigrants from the town resettled in and further developed Locke. Chinese-owned businesses were established, along with a Chinese language school. The town continued to thrive as a Chinese American agricultural community until after World War II, when younger residents begin leaving the town for better educational and employment opportunities in urban centers.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The delta swampland on which Locke was built on was home to Native American Miwok and Maidu tribes for hundreds of years. Tribal burial grounds exist on the Locke parcel.</p><br>
<p>Legislation such as the Swampland Reclamation Act of 1861 was enacted in California to put perceived empty and wasted lands to use and stabilization. Much of this involved draining the Delta wetlands and building levees to regulate flood control in places like Locke. Contracted labor was often paid the equivalent of less than one dollar a day per worker. They built hundreds of miles of levees in waist deep water where malaria still rampaged, reclaiming a total 88,000 acres.</p><br>
<p>In 1912, three Chinese merchants, two from the nearby town of Vorden and one from Walnut Grove, contracted tradesmen to construct three buildings. Chan Tin Sin built the first building. It was a combination dry goods store and beer saloon. Yuen Lai Sing built a gambling hall. Owyang Wing Cheong built the Lockeport Hotel & Restaurant.</p><br>
<p>Following that early construction the Canton Hotel was built, along with several other buildings. A total of seven structures eventually formed the hamlet of Lockeport. Though some merchants hoped to provide a destination for riverboat and train passengers, the idea never worked due to the discrimination against Chinese during those times. One of the homes built in the first phase of construction provided shelter for Chan Tin Sin&#39;s cousin Chan Chor Get and his family from the discriminatory acts and violence in San Francisco Chinatown.</p><br>
<p>On October 7, 1915, the Chinatown of nearby Walnut Grove was destroyed by an accidental fire. Afterwards, the Main Street section of Locke was established and settled by a group of Chinese immigrants from what is now modern day Zhongshan in southern China&#39;s Guangdong province, headed by Lee Bing, a Chinese American businessman. Whereas Taishanese-speaking Chinese settlers remained in Walnut Grove after the fire to rebuild, the Cantonese-speaking Zhongshan Chinese settlers migrated to Locke to create a town of their own. The land was leased from George Locke as California law at the time forbade the selling of farmland to Asian immigrants by the California Alien Land Law of 1913.</p><br>
<p>Due to its relatively large Chinese population at the time, the Chinese Kuomintang political party once had a local chapter in Locke. As the town grew, so did its reputation as a destination for illicit entertainment, gaining the nickname "California&#39;s Monte Carlo". At one point, it had five gambling halls, five brothels, speakeasies and opium dens.</p><br>
<p>The population of Locke swelled with the growing season and harvest. Most of the reclaimed land in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta including Locke was used for cash crops, including asparagus, potato, sweet potatoes, white beans, pears, and apples. There would be as many as 1000 to 1500 Chinese people living in Locke. Farmhands shared rooms in the boarding houses. Chinese residents living in the homes behind Main Street also took in Chinese farm laborers. Chinese immigrants in Locke started patterns in California agriculture that are continued today in the Sacramento-San Joaquin region, including contracted labor, tenant farming, sharecropping, and the piece wage system. A community garden existed in the back and there was a special oven to make roast pigs on Sundays. Chinese communities congregated in solidarity under difficult labor and social conditions fostered by legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, creating community gardens that maintained cultural relevancy in the form of growing Chinese cabbage, snow peas, leafy vegetables, winter melon, and tomatoes. Baptist missionary Dr. Charles Shepherd would bring in his Chungmei home boys for the pear harvest at the end of July. Life in Locke had a great deal of accord. The Chinese mothers took care of each other&#39;s children when another mother had to go to work at the cannery across the River Road next to the riverboat docks of the Sacramento River.</p><br>
<p>During the 1940s and 1950s, many of Locke&#39;s Chinese Americans, many of whom received better education, began joining the American mainstream by moving out of rural Locke and into the burgeoning suburbs of the major cities.</p><br>
<p>The Locke Historic District is bounded on the west by the Sacramento River, on the north by Locke Rd., on the east by Alley St., and on the south by Levee St. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 6, 1971.</p><br>
<p>A Hong Kong-based developer purchased the town in 1977 from the Locke Heirs and sold it in 2002 to the Sacramento Housing and Redevelopment Agency. In 2004, the agency finally allowed the sale of land to those who had been living on it for many years. There were plans to convert Locke into a housing development and tourist attraction. At the north end of Main Street, the restored Locke Boarding House museum (now owned by California State Parks) operates daily, staffed by volunteers. The Town of Locke celebrated its centennial anniversary in 2015, with a large gathering on May 9.</p><br>
<p>On July 3, 2016, a fire erupted on the second floor of the Locke Country Store on Main Street, which contained two apartments. The fire resulted in the complete destruction of the second floor of the building and a building behind the store. There were no injuries.</p><br>
<p>The Locke Historic District was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 14, 1990.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>In the state legislature, Locke is in the 3rd State Senate district, represented by Democrat Bill Dodd, and in the 11th State Assembly district, represented by Democrat Jim Frazier.</p><br>
<p>Federally, Locke is in.</p><br>
<h2>Post office</h2><br>
<p>Locke had its own ZIP Code of 95649, but it was discontinued shortly after the post office bearing that code closed on August 2, 1963. Since then, Locke uses Walnut Grove&#39;s ZIP code of 95690, and the community is inside area code 916.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Locke is the subject of the following books:</p><br>
<p>by Jeff Gillenkirk and James Motlow (Nine Mile Press). Winner of the Commonwealth Clubs 57th Annual Book Award, Silver Medal</p><br>
<p>by Peter C. Y Leung.</p><br>
<p>by Shawna Yang Ryan.</p><br>
<p>Locke has been featured in the following film and television series:</p><br>
<p>Bird (1988) - Locke doubled for Kansas City in Clint Eastwood&#39;s film about Charlie Parker.</p><br>
<p>Life (1999) - Locke doubled for the Mississippi Delta in the Eddie Murphy and Martin Lawrence buddy comedy.</p><br>
<p>Take Out with Lisa Ling S1 E2 (2022) - Lisa Ling visited the town in this series about Asian American cuisine.</p><br>
<p>Federal Hall is a memorial and historic site at 26 Wall Street in the Financial District of Manhattan in New York City. The current Greek Revival–style building, completed in 1842 as the Custom House, is owned by the United States federal government and operated by the National Park Service as a national memorial called the Federal Hall National Memorial. The memorial is named for an earlier Federal style building on this same site, completed in 1703 as City Hall, which the government of the newly independent United States used as its capital building and called Federal Hall during the 1780s.</p><br>
<p>The 1703 building had served as New Yorks City Hall and hosted the 1765 Stamp Act Congress before the American Revolution. After the United States became an independent nation, it served as the meeting place for the Congress of the Confederation, the nations first central government under the Articles of Confederation, from 1785 to 1789, and the building was expanded and updated. With the establishment of the United States federal government in 1789, it hosted the 1st Congress and was where George Washington was sworn in as the nation&#39;s first president. It was demolished in 1812 to make way for another government building.</p><br>
<p>The current structure, designed by Ithiel Town and Alexander Jackson Davis, was built as the USA Custom House for the Port of New York before serving as a Subtreasury building from 1862 to 1925. The current national memorial commemorates the historic events that occurred at the previous structure. The memorial building is constructed of Tuckahoe marble. Its architectural features include a colonnade of Doric columns, as well as a domed rotunda designed by the sculptor John Frazee. The facade and part of the interior are New York City designated landmarks, and the building is also a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>First structure</h2><br>
<p>In the 17th century, the area north of Wall Street was occupied by John Damens farm. Damen sold the land in 1685 to captain John Knight, an officer of Thomas Dongans administration. Knight resold the land to Dongan, and Dongan resold it in 1689 to Abraham de Peyster and Nicholas Bayard. Both de Peyster and Bayard served as Mayors of New York.</p><br>
<h3>City Hall</h3><br>
<p>The original structure on the site was built as New Yorks second City Hall from 1699 to 1703, on Wall Street, in what is today the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. This structure had been designed by James Evetts to replace Stadt Huys, the citys first administrative center. It measured two stories high, with wings extending west and east. The stones from Wall Streets old fortifications were used for City Hall. The upper stories were used as a debtors prison.</p><br>
<p>In 1735, John Peter Zenger, an American newspaper publisher, was arrested for committing libel against the British royal governor and was imprisoned and tried there. His acquittal on the grounds that the material he had printed was true established freedom of the press as it was later defined in the Bill of Rights.</p><br>
<p>City Hall was first remodeled in 1765, when a third story was added. That October, delegates from nine of the Thirteen Colonies met as the Stamp Act Congress in response to the levying of the Stamp Act by the Parliament of Great Britain. Drawn together for the first time in organized opposition to British policy, the attendees drafted a message to King George III, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons, claiming entitlement to the same rights as the residents of Britain and protesting the colonies&#39; "taxation without representation". The Sons of Liberty took over the building from the British during the American Revolutionary War in 1775. Afterward, City Hall served as the meeting place for the Continental Congress.</p><br>
<h3>Federal Hall</h3><br>
<p>After the American Revolution, City Hall was home to the Congress of the Confederation of the United States under the Articles of Confederation. The first meeting of the Confederation Congress took place at City Hall on April 13, 1784.</p><br>
<h4>Design and construction</h4><br>
<p>The Congress of the Confederation still needed a permanent structure, and the New York City Council and mayor James Duane wished for the city to be the United States capital. Private citizens and the government of New York City contributed $65,000 toward the renovation of the old City Hall. The Patriots felt that the building should be remodeled in a distinctively American architectural style while also preserving the pre-colonial structure. Pierre Charles L&#39;Enfant, a French architect who had helped the Americans during the Revolutionary War, was selected to remodel the structure.</p><br>
<p>LEnfants expansion was characteristic of Georgian-style designs, although he used larger proportions, and added American motifs. An arched promenade was built through the street-level basement, with four heavy Tuscan columns supporting a balcony. On balcony level, four high Doric columns were installed, supporting a pediment that depicted an American eagle with thirteen arrows (one for each of the original Thirteen Colonies). L&#39;Enfant also created a recessed gallery behind the columns, and he placed decorative swags above the second-story windows.</p><br>
<h4>Usage</h4><br>
<p>The city moved all of its municipal offices out of the building in late 1788, but the New York Society Library&#39;s 3,500-volume library remained in the building for the time being. Work progressed quickly between September 1788 and March 1789. The first inauguration of George Washington, the first-ever inauguration of a President of the United States, occurred on the balcony of the building on April 30, 1789. Many of the most important legislative actions in the United States occurred with the 1st Congress at Federal Hall. For example, on September 25, 1789, the United States Bill of Rights was proposed in Federal Hall, establishing the freedoms claimed by the 1765 Stamp Act Congress. The Judiciary Act of 1789 was also enacted in the building, setting up the United States federal court system.</p><br>
<p>In 1790, the United States capital moved to Philadelphia. What had been Federal Hall was turned into quarters for the state assembly and courts. The Federal Hall building was one of the few structures in the area to survive an 1804 fire that caused $2 million in damage (equivalent to $ million in ). Part of the original railing and balcony floor, where Washington had been inaugurated, is on display in the memorial and was at one point held by the New-York Historical Society. Nassau Street had originally curved around the building to the west, while Broad Street had run to the east. Nassau Street was straightened after the building was demolished, and it runs to the west of the modern Federal Hall National Memorial.</p><br>
<h2>Second structure</h2><br>
<p>The current Greek Revival structure was the first building that was specifically constructed for the USA Custom House for the Port of New York. The Custom House previously had been located in Government House, a converted residence on Bowling Green. Land for the new building had been purchased incrementally in 1816, 1824, and 1832.</p><br>
<h3>Custom House</h3><br>
<p>The firm of Town and Davis, composed of Ithiel Town and Alexander Jackson Davis, won an architectural design competition for the new Custom House building and was awarded the contract for the building&#39;s design in August 1833. The building would have also been decorated with details such as acroteria, metopes, and triangular pediments.</p><br>
<p>Work on the Custom House began in January 1834, but the Customs Service then requested that the plans for the new building be downsized due to increasing costs. As a result, the dome was reduced in size and the original double colonnade on the facade was changed to a single colonnade. Frazee influenced the design of the interior and decorative details, and he modified plans for the attic to a full-height third story. Frazee got into a dispute with building commissioner Walter Bowne and was dismissed in 1840, although he was rehired in 1841.</p><br>
<p>The Custom House building opened in 1842 at a cost of $928,312 (equivalent to $ million in ). The building came to be associated with political patronage. "The Seven Stages of the Office Seeker", an 1852 print by Edward Williams Clay, satirized how Democratic Party patronage under New York governor Martin Van Buren was centered around the Custom House. By 1861, the structure had become too small to accommodate all of the customs duties of the USA Custom House for the Port of New York. The USA government decided to move the customs offices one block to 55 Wall Street, then occupied by the Merchants Exchange. The federal government of the United States signed a lease with the Merchants Exchange in February 1862, intending to move into the building that May. The customs offices were moved to 55 Wall Street starting in August 1862.</p><br>
<h3>Subtreasury</h3><br>
<p>After the relocation of the Custom House, 26 Wall Street was transformed into a building for the United States Subtreasury. The Subtreasury desks were arranged around the rotunda of the building. Gold and coin storage vaults were placed along a passage near the north side of the rotunda. Bars were stored to the west, or left, and gold certificates and coins were stored to the east, or right. A vault for small change was also provided. A coin division was on the east side of the building, on the floor of the rotunda, toward Pine Street. Silver was stored in the northwest corner of the building, in the basement. An armory was placed on the upper stories, and various fortifications were mounted at the top of the building to protect the money. Adjoining the Subtreasury to the east was the United States Assay Office, a branch of the United States Mint that performed all Mint functions except creating the coinage. At its peak, the Subtreasury building held seventy percent of the federal government&#39;s money.</p><br>
<p>In 1883, John Quincy Adams Wards bronze statue of George Washington was put up on the Subtreasurys ceremonial front steps. A plaque memorializing the Northwest Ordinance was dedicated at the Subtreasury in 1905.</p><br>
<p>By 1917, the Subtreasury building held $519 million worth of gold and several million dollars more in coins. In the Wall Street bombing of 1920, a bomb was detonated across from the Subtreasury at 23 Wall Street, in what became known as The Corner. Thirty-eight people were killed and 400 injured, though the Subtreasury was undamaged.</p><br>
<p>The Federal Reserve Bank replaced the Subtreasury system in 1920, and the Subtreasury office closed on December 7 of that year. The Assay Office leased the Subtreasury building to the Fed, which was constructing a building of its own, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York Building, two blocks north. The Fed started moving its monetary holdings from the Subtreasury to the new Fed building in May 1924. This prompted concern among local financiers that the federal government was planning to sell the building to a private entity.</p><br>
<h3>Use by other government offices</h3><br>
<p>Ultimately, the government decided to retain ownership of the Subtreasury, using it as storage space for the Assay Office and as office space for other agencies. The government also considered moving the Bureau of Internal Revenue to the Subtreasury. In October 1924, federal officials announced they would move Prohibition enforcement agents&#39; offices to the Subtreasury building, using the basement vaults to store confiscated alcoholic beverages. These plans were canceled the next month because of opposition from patriotic and historical societies. In early 1925, the City Club of New York appealed to Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon to preserve the Subtreasury building. USA representative Anning Smith Prall proposed a bill that December to allocate $5 million for an expansion of the Subtreasury building.</p><br>
<p>A passport office opened on the Pine Street side of the building in March 1925. The Subtreasury was also used for events such as a 1926 party to celebrate the dedication of the Bowling Green Community House, as well as Constitution Day celebrations. The Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT) built its Nassau Street Line under the building in the late 1920s, and the Subtreasury was underpinned during the line&#39;s construction. The original foundation was only 8 ft deep, so additional supports were installed underneath, descending 30 ft to the bedrock. A water main under Nassau Street ruptured in October 1931, severely damaging some of the records that were stored in the basement.</p><br>
<p>A writer for The New York Times in 1930 characterized the Subtreasury as one of "the big little buildings of Wall Street", along with 23 Wall Street, the New York Stock Exchange Building, and Trinity Church. In the early 1930s, the United States Post Office Department proposed replacing the Subtreasury building with a post office, which would be a replica of Federal Hall as it appeared in 1789. At the time, the three post-office substations in Lower Manhattan could not adequately accommodate high demand from the surrounding office buildings. The department said much of the Subtreasury&#39;s space was unused because historical and patriotic societies had objected to most plans for the building. The Subtreasury continued to be used as a passport office through the mid-1930s.</p><br>
<h3>Federal Hall National Memorial</h3><br>
<h4>1930s to 1950s</h4><br>
<p>In 1939, after the government announced plans to demolish the Subtreasury building, a group called Federal Hall Memorial Associates raised money to prevent the buildings demolition. The building was designated as Federal Hall Memorial National Historic Site on May 26, 1939, and an information bureau opened on the rotunda floor, with exhibits related to finance and the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. The next month, the National Park Service (NPS) took over the Subtreasury building. The memorial commemorated the first building on the site, rather than the extant Subtreasury building. After several months of negotiations, Federal Hall Memorial Associates was allowed to operate the interior as a museum in January 1940. The memorial opened on Washington&#39;s Birthday, February 22, 1940. The New York Herald Tribune said that, within the United States, Federal Hall Memorial was only matched by Mount Vernon and Independence Hall "in historical interest".</p><br>
<p>The building celebrated its 100th anniversary on Washingtons Birthday in 1942. Among the other events that took place at Federal Hall Memorial in the early 1940s were sales of World War II war bonds, Constitution Day celebrations, rallies in support of the United Service Organizations, and stamp sales. Federal Hall Memorial continued to be used for events in the 1950s, including a blood donation drive and a Salvation Army donation drive. In 1952, the United States House of Representatives Subcommittee of the Interior voted to permit the rehabilitation of Federal Hall. The John Peter Zenger Room, a journalism exhibit, was dedicated at Federal Hall in April 1953. The next year, the USA government relocated the building&#39;s original wrought-iron fence into the basement because the Tennessee marble under it had started to buckle.</p><br>
<p>As the building is owned by the federal government and managed by the NPS, renovations and restoration proposals must be approved by Congress. In 1954, the New York City Council passed a resolution asking Congress to establish a committee to provide suggestions for restoring Federal Hall, the Castle Clinton National Monument, and the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Federal Hall was re-designated as a national memorial on August 11, 1955. The same year, the federal government created the New York City National Shrines Advisory Board. The board first convened in February 1956. The government tentatively allocated $1.621 million for the restoration of Federal Hall, whose interior had become dilapidated. In February 1957, the board recommended allocating $3 million for the restoration of the three sites. By 1960, Interior Secretary Fred A. Seaton announced plans to restore Federal Hall within the next two years. He proposed that local civic groups raise $2.9 million, half of the projected cost, and that the government raise matching funds. The next year, Interior Secretary Stewart Udall announced that the federal government would start redeveloping the three historic sites in advance of the 1964 New York World&#39;s Fair. Federal government officials also installed a plaque in front of the building, dedicating it as a "national shrine".</p><br>
<h4>1960s to 1990s</h4><br>
<p>The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the buildings exterior as a landmark on December 21, 1965. The building was also added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on October 15, 1966, the day the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 was signed. The buildings location on Wall Street, and near the New York Stock Exchange Building, made it a "natural rallying place" as The New York Times described it. As a result, its front steps were used for demonstrations, political rallies, President&#39;s Day celebrations, and union drives. After the building closed for restoration in 1968, the NPS said that loitering on the front steps developed into "more of a problem". Among these events were an anti-narcotics rally and a protest against the Vietnam War in 1970.</p><br>
<p>The building reopened to the public in 1972 as a museum. That year, the New York City Bicentennial Corporation issued a commemorative medal honoring the original Federal Hall, as well as New York City during the American Revolution. The LPC held hearings in 1975 to determine whether the interiors of Federal Halls rotunda, the Morris–Jumel Mansion, and the Bartow–Pell Mansion should be designated as landmarks. The LPC designated all three buildings interiors as landmarks on May 26, 1975, and the New York City Board of Estimate ratified these designations that July. The NPS hired Phoebe Dent Weil to restore the George Washington statue on the front steps in 1978.</p><br>
<p>The Whitney Museum opened a temporary branch at Federal Hall in 1982. This was actually the third location of the Whitney&#39;s first satellite branch, which had previously been housed at 55 Water Street and the First Police Precinct Station House. eventually reopening at 33 Maiden Lane in 1988. During this decade, Richard Jenrettethe chairman of banking house Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette, which was headquartered nearbystarted soliciting $500,000 in private donations to renovate Federal Hall, in conjunction with Federal Hall Memorial Associates. Although the group planned to renovate the rotunda into a reception area with contemporary furnishings, by 1985, only $73.000 had been raised and no contemporary furnishings had been acquired.</p><br>
<p>Federal officials announced in 1986 that Federal Hall would be renovated; the spaces would be cleaned and painted, and mechanical systems would be replaced. The memorials second floor would contain two galleries about the Constitution of the United States, and an exhibit about the original building would be installed as well. Federal Hall hosted a reenactment of Washingtons inauguration on April 30, 1989, the event&#39;s 200th anniversary. The reenactment, attended by USA president George Bush, was intended to raise $700,000 for the museum, In addition to Constitution-related exhibits, the museum hosted temporary exhibits such as a display of Hudson Valley artwork, a showcase of New York City designated landmarks, and an exhibit about the abolition of slavery in the United States.</p><br>
<h4>2000s to present</h4><br>
<p>By the beginning of the 21st century, Federal Hall contained numerous large cracks. During the September 11, 2001, attacks, which caused the nearby collapse of the World Trade Centers Twin Towers, 300 people sheltered at the memorial. Due to concerns over the buildings structural integrity, Federal Hall was closed for one month following the attacks. When the building reopened, metal detectors similar to those at airports were placed at the entrances. As a result, in early 2002, the NPS received $16.5 million for repairs to the building. On September 6, 2002, approximately 300 members of Congress traveled from Washington, D.C. to New York to convene in Federal Hall National Memorial as a symbolic show of support for the city; this was the first meeting of Congress in New York since 1790. Four steel pilings were installed under one of the building&#39;s corners in 2003 after investigators found a 24-inch air gap beneath that corner.</p><br>
<p>The site closed on December 3, 2004, for a $16 million renovation, mostly to its foundation. Federal Hall National Memorial reopened in late 2006. The renovated memorial included a visitor center, showcasing other historical sites operated by the NPS in the New York City area. The same year, the metal detectors were removed and replaced with magnetometers because the security screening process took too long, driving away many visitors. This measure increased attendance fourfold. McCain did host his own town hall forum at Federal Hall in June 2008.</p><br>
<p>The American Express Foundation donated $75,000 in 2012 toward the restoration of the Washington statue outside the building. By 2018, local newspaper AM New York Metro wrote that "cracked walls, peeling paint and a rust-water-stained rotunda are among the deteriorating conditions that greet nearly 300,000 visitors who come there to learn about American history." The cooling system was replaced in 2020. The NPS temporarily closed the memorial in July 2021 after finding cracked stone.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Federal Hall National Memorial was designed by architects Ithiel Town and Alexander Jackson Davis of Town and Davis, with a domed rotunda designed by the sculptor John Frazee. The building is constructed of Tuckahoe marble. Two prominent American ideals are reflected in the current buildings Greek Revival architecture. Town and Daviss Doric columns on the facade resemble those of the Parthenon and serve as a tribute to the democracy of the Greeks. Frazee&#39;s domed rotunda echoes the Pantheon and is evocative of the republican ideals of the ancient Romans.</p><br>
<p>The building contains two basement levels, three full above-ground stories, and an attic. The Subtreasury had been constructed with 22 or 25 rooms.</p><br>
<h3>Facade</h3><br>
<p>The facade of the building is made of marble blocks measuring 5 ft thick. A set of 18 granite steps lead from ground level up to the rotunda. John Quincy Adams Wards bronze statue of George Washington is placed on the buildings ceremonial front steps. At the top of the stairs, a colonnade supports a plain triangular pediment. The lack of sculpture on the pediment may have been influenced by aesthetic considerations, as there were few "qualified sculptors" at the time of the building&#39;s construction, according to Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis.</p><br>
<p>Next to the building&#39;s western elevation, there was originally a wrought-iron fence about 38 in tall and 190 ft long; it rested on a parapet of Tennessee marble measuring 22 in tall. The fence, which was placed about 5 ft in front of the building, was removed in 1954. When the building was used by the Subtreasury, guards were stationed in three turrets on the roof. These turrets contained grilles through which the guards could fire at invaders. There are also flat pilasters on the western facade, along Nassau Street.</p><br>
<h3>Rotunda</h3><br>
<p>The main rotunda of Federal Hall is 60 ft in diameter. The rotunda had contained four Carrara-marble counters when it was used as the Custom House.</p><br>
<p>The rotunda is topped by a self-supporting masonry saucer dome with a skylight at its center. The dome contains narrow panels with curved bottoms, as well as anthemion motifs at their top and bottom ends. The skylight is surrounded by raised rosettes. The decorations were originally in a gold, blue, and white color scheme. The floor of the rotunda contains gray and cream marble blocks in concentric circles. At the center of the floor is a stone slab, where George Washington once stood.</p><br>
<h2>Activities</h2><br>
<p>The National Park Service operates Federal Hall as a national memorial. The memorial has tourist information about the New York Harbor area&#39;s federal monuments and parks, and a New York City tourism information center. The gift shop has colonial and early American items for sale. Normally its exhibit galleries are open free to the public daily, except national holidays, and guided tours of the site are offered throughout the day.</p><br>
<p>The memorial has several permanent exhibits. Among the items displayed are a piece of the balcony upon which Washington stood in his first inauguration. Various temporary exhibitions have also been shown at Federal Hall. For instance, in 2023 the building hosted a site-specific theatre performance, The Democracy Project.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>Federal Hall is open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. on Mondays through Fridays and is closed on weekends. The memorial is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 via a ramp at its rear, on Pine Street. The M55 bus stops nearby on Broadway, while the M15 and M15 SBS stop nearby on Water Street. In addition, the Broad Street station of the New York City Subway, serving the, is directly under Federal Hall.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, the museum had an estimated 200,000 annual visitors. This was about one percent of the 15 million people who visited the intersection of Wall, Nassau, and Broad Streets every year.</p><br>
<h2>On USA postage</h2><br>
<p>Engraved renditions of Federal Hall appear on multiple USA postage stamps. The first stamp showing Federal Hall was issued on April 30, 1939, the 150th anniversary of President Washingtons inauguration, where he is depicted on the balcony of Federal Hall taking the oath of office. The second issue was released in 1957, the 200th anniversary of Alexander Hamiltons birth. This issue depicts Alexander Hamilton and a full view of Federal Hall.</p><br>
<p>In addition, in 1988, the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative 25-cent stamp in 1988, the 200th anniversary of when New York ratified the United States Constitution. The stamp depicted the original Federal Hall, Wall Street, and Trinity Church&#39;s steeple.</p><br>
<p>The Dighton Rock is a 40-ton boulder, originally located in the riverbed of the Taunton River at Berkley, Massachusetts . The rock is noted for its petroglyphs , carved designs of ancient and uncertain origin, and the controversy about their creators. In 1963, during construction of a coffer dam, state officials removed the rock from the river for preservation. It was installed in a museum in the nearby Dighton Rock State Park. In 1971, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places .</p><br>
<h2>Appearance</h2><br>
<p>The boulder has the form of a slanted, six-sided block, approximately 5 ft high, 9.5 ft wide, and 11 ft long. It is gray-brown crystalline sandstone of medium to coarse texture. The surface with the inscriptions has a trapezoidal face and is inclined 70 degrees to the northwest. It was found facing the water of the bay.</p><br>
<h2>History and mythology</h2><br>
<p>In 1680, the English colonist Rev. John Danforth made a drawing of the petroglyphs, which has been preserved in the British Museum. His drawing conflicts with the reports of others and the current markings on the rock. In 1690 Rev. Cotton Mather described the rock in his book The Wonderful Works of God Commemorated: Among the other Curiosities of New-England, one is that of a mighty Rock, on a perpendicular side whereof by a River, which at High Tide covers part of it, there are very deeply Engraved, no man alive knows How or When about half a score Lines, near Ten Foot Long, and a foot and half broad, filled with strange Characters: which would suggest as odd Thoughts about them that were here before us, as there are odd Shapes in that Elaborate Monument.</p><br>
<p>During the 19th century, many popular publications and public figures mentioned the rock. The poet and critic James Russell Lowell suggested that presidential candidates&#39; letters to newspapers should be written in its undeciphered script: "f letters must be written, profitable use might be made of the Dighton rock hieroglyphic or the cuneiform script, every fresh decipherer of which is enabled to educe a different meaning." Lowell made other references to the rock in his widely circulated satirical writing, and may thus have helped to popularize it.</p><br>
<p>Hypotheses about the creation of the markings include:</p><br>
<h2>State park</h2><br>
<p>In November 1952, the Miguel Corte-Real Memorial Society of New York City acquired 49+1/2 acre of land adjacent to the rock to create a park. However, in 1951 the Massachusetts Legislature expropriated the same land for a State Park. More land was purchased. Dighton Rock State Park now has an area of 100 acre. The vicinity of Dighton Rock has been beautified and furnished with parking and picnic facilities.</p><br>
<h2>Depths of inscriptions</h2><br>
<p>Although Mather described these as deeply cut, a statement which has been repeated to the present day, early reports suggested that this was not exactly the case. DelaBarre wrote:</p><br>
<p>One thing is certain, that former descriptions of the depth of the incisions cannot be used as evidence for any change. The first who describes them calls them "deeply engraved" in 1690; but Cotton Mather had never seen the rock, so far as we know, and this statement of his is doubtless on a par with his other statement that the characters are on "a mighty Rock." Greenwood gives the first reliable description, in 1730. He definitely says that the "indentures are not very considerable," and his drawing and his other statements prove that he had as much difficulty in making out the real characters as has ever been experienced since then. Even on the lowest part of the face, which alone does show evident signs of much wear, Mather&#39;s draughtsman, and Greenwood, and their next followers, were even less successful in making out apparent characters than have been some later observers. Sewall in 1768 and Kendall in 1807 made definite statements to the effect that the greater part of the lines were so much effaced as to make their decipherment impossible, or wholly subject to the fancy.</p><br>
<p>The Iolani Palace  was the royal residence of the rulers of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi beginning with Kamehameha III under the Kamehameha Dynasty  and ending with Queen Liliʻuokalani  under the Kalākaua Dynasty, founded by her brother, King David Kalākaua. It is located in the capitol district of downtown Honolulu in the USA state of Hawaii. It is now a National Historic Landmark listed on the National Register of Historic Places. After the monarchy was overthrown in 1893, the building was used as the capitol building for the Provisional Government, Republic, Territory, and State of Hawaii until 1969. The palace was restored and opened to the public as a museum in 1978. ʻIolani Palace is the only royal palace on US soil.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<h3>Pohukaina and the House of Kamehameha</h3><br>
<p>In the early 19th century, the site of ʻIolani Palace was near an ancient burial site known as Pohukaina. It is believed to be the name of a chief (sometimes spelled Pahukaina) who according to legend chose a cave in Kanehoalani in the Koʻolau Range for his resting place. The land belonged to Kekauluohi, who later served as Kuhina Nui. She lived there with her husband Charles Kanaina. Kekūanaōʻa, a chief who served as Governor of Oʻahu, also had his home, called Haliimaile, just west of Kekauluohi&#39;s home. Another chief, Keoni Ana, lived in Kīnaʻu Hale (which was later converted into the residence of the royal chamberlain), all members of the House of Kamehameha.</p><br>
<p>Kekāuluohi and Kanaʻina&#39;s original home was similar to that of the other estates in the neighborhood consisting of small buildings used for different purposes. The sitting and sleeping area had a folding door entrance of green painted wood under glass upper panels. The house had two rooms separated by a festooned tent door of chintz fabric and was carpeted with hand crafted makaloa mats. In the front was a lounge area opposite a sideboard and mirror. In the middle they placed a semi circle of armchairs with a center table where the couple would write. Four matching cabinet-bookshelves with glass doors were set in each corner of the room with silk scarves hanging from each. In his book, A visit to the South Seas, in the USA Ship Vincennes: during the years 1829 and 1830, Charles Samuel Stewart describes the area and homes in detail.</p><br>
<p>Next to Kekāuluohi and Kanaʻina&#39;s home was an old estate that had been demolished called Hanailoia. According to oral history, Hanailoia was the former site of a destroyed heiau called Kaʻahaimauli.</p><br>
<h4>Tomb</h4><br>
<p>Pohukaina was a sacred burial site for the aliʻi (ruling class). Years after 1825, the first Western-style royal tomb was constructed for the bodies of King Kamehameha II and his queen Kamāmalu. They were buried on August 23, 1825. The design was heavily influenced by the tombs at Westminster Abbey during Kamehameha II&#39;s trip to London. The mausoleum was a small house made of coral blocks with a thatched roof. It had no windows, and it was the duty of two chiefs to guard the iron-locked koa door day and night. No one was allowed to enter the vault except for burials or Memorial Day, a Hawaiian holiday celebrated on December 30.</p><br>
<p>Over time, as more bodies were added, the small vault became crowded, so other chiefs and retainers were buried in unmarked graves nearby. In 1865 a selected eighteen coffins were removed to the Royal Mausoleum of Hawaiʻi, called Mauna ʻAla, in Nuʻuanu Valley. But many chiefs remain on the site including: Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku, Kalaniʻōpuʻu, Chiefess Kapiʻolani, and Haʻalilio. A lead coffin belonging to Kekupuohi (died 1836), one of the wives of Kamehameha I, was uncovered in 1931.</p><br>
<p>After being overgrown for many years, the Hawaiian Historical Society passed a resolution in 1930 requesting Governor Lawrence Judd to memorialize the site with the construction of a metal fence enclosure and a plaque.</p><br>
<p>According to tradition, Pohukaina was built on the site of a former cave.</p><br>
<h3>Hale Aliʻi</h3><br>
<p>In July 1844, Kekūanaōʻa began building a large home at the site of the current palace as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu. Instead, Kamehameha III purchased the estate and used the home as his royal residence after moving the capital of the kingdom to Honolulu from Lāhainā. It would become the Iolani Palace. As older alii died, the lands were passed down and concentrated into fewer hands. Kekāuluohi&#39;s lands were passed down to her from the Kamehameha family. When she died, she left her accumulated lands and wealth to her son, not her husband Kanaʻina however, Lunalilo predeceased his father.</p><br>
<p>The home built by Kekūanaōʻa was a wood and stone building called Hale Aliʻi meaning House of the Chiefs. It had only one-third the floor space of the present palace. Mataio Kekūanaōʻa, who was long-time Royal Governor of Oʻahu and husband of Kīnaʻu, the daughter of Kamehameha I, built the large home for his daughter Princess Victoria Kamāmalu who, from birth, was expected to rule in some capacity. It was purchased by King Kamehameha III from Kamāmalu (the King&#39;s niece) when he moved his capital from Lahaina to Honolulu in 1845.</p><br>
<p>It was constructed as a traditional aliʻi residence with only ceremonial spaces, no sleeping rooms. It just had a throne room, a reception room, and a state dining room, with other houses around for sleeping and for retainers. Kamehameha III slept in a cooler grass hut around the palace. He called his home Hoʻihoʻikea, a separate building flanking the palace on the west side in honor of his restoration after the Paulet Affair of 1843. Kamehameha IV build a separate house on the east side of the palace called Ihikapukalani (on the mauka side) and Kauluhinano (on the makai side).</p><br>
<h4>Name changed to ʻIolani Palace</h4><br>
<p>During Kamehameha Vs reign Hale Aliʻis name was changed to ʻIolani Palace, after his brother Kamehameha IVs given names (his full name was Alexander Liholiho Keawenui ʻIolani). It refers to the ʻIo (royal hawk). The Palace served as the official residence of the monarch during the reigns of Kamehameha III, Kamehameha IV, Kamehameha V, Lunalilo, and the first part of Kalākauas reign. The original structure was very simple in design and was more of a stately home than a palace, but at the time, it was the grandest house in town. The palace was largely meant for receiving foreign dignitaries and state functions with the monarch preferring to sleep in private homes.</p><br>
<h3>Seat of government</h3><br>
<p>Kamehameha I formed his official government at Lahaina, Maui in 1802, where he built the kingdoms first royal residence called the Brick Palace. Lahaina remained the seat of government under the first three Kamehameha monarchs until 1845 when Kamehameha III moved the royal court. Lahaina had been the seat of government, where the royal courts of many chiefs of Maui had been located, including Kahekili II until 1794. In 1845 Kamehameha III moved the Royal Court and capitol to Honolulu. Hale Alii would become the seat of government and would remain so through the subsequent Kamehameha monarchs. After 1874, the main seat of government was transferred to the new central government building left by Kamehameha V. After the overthrow the provisional government would use the Iolani Palace as the seat of government. While a territory, the palace was called: The Capitol of the Territorial Government. It would also serve as the first state capitol building. The area was culturally significant as a seat of government for many reasons including the palace&#39;s size, orientation and other factors of religious importance and bridged the ancient history of Hawaiʻi with the new 19th century monarchy.</p><br>
<h2>Kalākaua&#39;s ʻIolani Palace</h2><br>
<p>By the time David Kalākaua assumed the throne, the original Iolani Palace was in poor condition, suffering from ground termite damage. He ordered the old palace to be razed.</p><br>
<p>Kalākaua was the first monarch to travel around the world and like Kamehameha V, he dreamed of a royal palace befitting the monarch of a modern state. While visiting Europe, Kalākaua took note of the customs and traditions practiced by his contemporaries where he decided that incorporating their elements would help legitimize his kingdom through their eyes; this included the building of a new palace inspired by these European grand palaces. Thus, he commissioned the construction of a new Iolani Palace, directly across the street from Aliiōlani Hale, to become the official palace of the Hawaiian monarchy.</p><br>
<h3>Design and construction</h3><br>
<p>Three architects, Thomas J. Baker, Charles J. Wall, and Isaac Moore, It was built of brick with concrete facing. The building was completed in November 1882 and cost over $340,000 — a vast fortune at the time ($ in dollars ). It measures about 140 ft by 100 ft, and rises two stories over a raised basement to 54 ft high. It has four corner towers and two in the center rising to 76 ft. On February 12, 1883, a formal European-style coronation ceremony was held, even though Kalākaua had reigned for nine years. The coronation pavilion officially known as Keliiponi Hale was later moved to the southwest corner of the grounds and converted to a bandstand for the Royal Hawaiian Band.</p><br>
<p>Iolani Palace features architecture seen nowhere else in the world. This unique style is known as American Florentine. On the first floor a grand hall faces a staircase of koa wood. Ornamental plaster decorates the interior. The throne room (southeast corner), the blue meeting room, and the dining room adjoin the hall. The blue room included a large 1848 portrait of King Louis Philippe of France and a koa wood piano where Liliuokalani played her compositions for guests. Upstairs are the private library and bedrooms of the Hawaiian monarchs.</p><br>
<p>It served as the official residence of the Hawaiian monarch until the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. Therein not only Liliuokalani, but, Queen Kapiolani and other royal retainers were evicted from the palace after the overthrow.</p><br>
<p>The palace is the only official state residence of royalty on USA soil.</p><br>
<h3>Royal imprisonment and trial</h3><br>
<p>Upon the overthrow of the monarchy by the Committee of Safety in 1893, troops of the newly formed Provisional Government of Hawaii took control of Iolani Palace. After a few months government offices moved in and it was renamed the "Executive Building" for the Republic of Hawaii. Government officials carefully inventoried its contents and sold at public auctions whatever furniture or furnishings were not suitable for government operations. Queen Liliuokalani was imprisoned for nine months in a small room on the upper floor after the second of the Wilcox rebellions in 1895. The quilt she made is still there, in a room now called the Imprisonment Room or Quilt Room. The trial was held in the former throne room.</p><br>
<p>When a proposed annexation treaty up for ratification, the Hawaiian Patriotic League held a protest rally at the palace on September 6, 1897. They gathered petition signatures in an effort to demonstrate the treaty did not have popular support. On August 12, 1898, USA troops from the came ashore and raised the Flag of the United States at the palace to mark the annexation by the Newlands Resolution. The Queen and other Hawaiian nobles did not attend, staying at Washington Place instead. The building served as the capitol of the Territory of Hawaii, the military headquarters during World War II, and the State of Hawaii. During the government use of the palace, the second-floor royal bedroom became the governor&#39;s office, while the legislature occupied the entire first floor. The representatives met in the former throne room and the senate in the former dining room.</p><br>
<p>When Liliuokalani died in 1917, territorial governor Lucius E. Pinkham accorded her the honor of a state funeral in the throne room of the palace.</p><br>
<h3>Archives</h3><br>
<p>After annexation, there was a fear that all records would be moved to the mainland. Since an 1847 effort by Robert Crichton Wyllie, a set of archives had been kept of all kingdom records. A new fireproof building was built in 1906 on the grounds just to the southeast of the palace. It included a vault 30 ft by 40 ft with steel shelves. At first it was to be called the Hall of Records, but the name Archives of Hawaiʻi made it clear the documents included those from the kingdom. A new Kekāuluohi building provides digital access to some of the collections.</p><br>
<h2>Palace restoration</h2><br>
<p>In 1930 the interior of ʻIolani Palace was remodeled, and wood framing replaced by steel and reinforced concrete. The name ʻIolani Palace was officially restored in 1935.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, it served as the temporary headquarters for the military governor in charge of martial law in the Hawaiian Islands.</p><br>
<p>The Hawaiian soldiers of Japanese ancestry who were accepted for service in the USA Army became the core of the 442nd Infantry Regiment. Before leaving Hawaiʻi for training on the mainland, they were sworn in during a mass ceremony on the grounds of the Palace.</p><br>
<p>Through more than 70 years as a functional but neglected government building, the Palace fell into disrepair. After Hawaiʻi became a state, Governor John A. Burns began an effort to restore the palace in the 1960s. The first step was to move the former ʻIolani Barracks building from its original position northeast of the palace. It now serves as a visitors center for the palace.</p><br>
<p>ʻIolani Palace was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 29, 1962 and added as site 66000293 to the National Register of Historic Places listings in Oahu on October 15, 1966. Government offices vacated the Palace in 1969 and moved to the newly constructed Hawaiʻi State Capitol building on the former barracks site. In preparation for restoration, the Junior League of Honolulu researched construction, furnishings, and palace lifestyle in nineteenth-century newspapers, photographs and archival manuscripts. Overseeing the restoration was The Friends of ʻIolani Palace, founded by Liliʻuokalani Kawānanakoa Morris, grand-niece of Queen Kapiʻolani. Two wooden additions were removed and the interior was restored based on original plans.</p><br>
<p>Through the efforts of acquisitions researchers and professional museum staff, and donations of individuals, many original Palace objects have been returned. Government grants and private donations funded reproduction of original fabrics and finishes to restore Palace rooms to their monarchy era appearance. ʻIolani Palace opened to the public in 1978 after structural restoration of the building was completed. In the basement is a photographic display of the Palace, orders and decorations given by the monarchs, and an exhibit outlining restoration efforts.</p><br>
<p>The grounds of ʻIolani Palace are managed by the Hawaiʻi State Department of Land and Natural Resources but the palace building itself is managed as a historical house museum by the Friends of ʻIolani Palace, a non-profit non-governmental organization. The birthdays of King Kalākaua (November 16) and Queen Kapiʻolani (December 28) are celebrated with ceremonies.</p><br>
<p>ʻIolani Palace is one of the only places in Hawaiʻi where the flag of Hawaiʻi can officially fly alone without the American flag; the other three places are Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau Heiau, the Mauna ʻAla and Thomas Square.</p><br>
<h2>Contemporary events</h2><br>
<p>On January 17, 1993, a massive observation was held on the grounds of ʻIolani Palace to mark the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. A torchlight vigil was held at night, with the palace draped in black.</p><br>
<p>On April 30, 2008, ʻIolani Palace was overtaken by a group of native Hawaiians who called themselves the Hawaiian Kingdom Government to protest what they view as illegitimate rule by the United States. Mahealani Kahau, "head of state" of the group, said they do not recognize Hawaiʻi as a USA state, but would keep the occupation of the palace peaceful. "The Hawaiian Kingdom Government is here and it doesn&#39;t plan to leave. This is a continuity of the Hawaiian Kingdom of 1892 to today," Kahau said. Friends of ʻIolani Palace released a statement stating: "We respect the freedom of Hawaiian groups to hold an opinion on the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, we believe that blocking public access to Iolani Palace is wrong and certainly detrimental to our mission to share the Palace and its history with our residents, our keiki (children), and our visitors."</p><br>
<h3>In popular culture</h3><br>
<p>An exterior view of the Palace was frequently shown on the 1968 TV show Hawaii Five-O, suggesting it hosted the offices of the fictional state police unit featured on the show. It was also later portrayed in the late 1980s and early 1990s as the headquarters of the Honolulu Prosecuting Attorney, including Jason McCabe, in the TV series Jake and the Fatman.</p><br>
<p>A movie titled Princess Kaiulani about Princess Victoria Kaʻiulani Cleghorn was filmed at the palace in 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Citations</h2><br>
<p>Fairmount Park is the largest municipal park in Philadelphia and the historic name for a group of parks located throughout the city. Fairmount Park consists of two park sections named East Park and West Park, divided by the Schuylkill River, with the two sections together totalling 2,052 acre.</p><br>
<p>Many of the city&#39;s other parks had historically also been included in the Fairmount Park system prior to 2010, including Wissahickon Valley Park in Northwest Philadelphia, Pennypack Park in Northeast Philadelphia, Cobbs Creek Park in West Philadelphia, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Park in South Philadelphia, and 58 additional parks, parkways, plazas, squares, and public golf courses spread throughout the city. Since the 2010 merger, however, the term "Fairmount Park system" is no longer used by the Parks & Recreation department, and the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park and all other park areas are considered completely separate entities.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Fairmount Park, Philadelphia&#39;s first park, occupies 2,052 acre adjacent to the banks of the Schuylkill River. Since 2010, Philadelphia Parks & Recreation divides the original park into East and West Fairmount parks. The original domain of Fairmount Park consisted of three areas: South Park or the South Garden immediately below the Fairmount Water Works extending to the Callowhill Street Bridge; Old Park, which encompassed the former estates of Lemon Hill and Sedgeley; and West Park, the area including the Philadelphia Zoo, and the Centennial Exposition grounds. The South Garden predated the establishment of the Park Commission in 1867, while Lemon Hill and Sedgeley were added in 1855–56. After the American Civil War, work progressed on acquiring and laying out West Park. In the 1870s, the Fairmount Park Commission expropriated properties along the Wissahickon Creek to extend Fairmount Park. The Schuylkill River Trail is a modern paved multi-use trail by Kelly Drive in the East Park.</p><br>
<p>The Belmont Plateau Cross Country Course is located in Fairmount Park. The 1923 and 1976 USA Cross Country Championships were held in the park.</p><br>
<h3>Growth</h3><br>
<p>The park grew out of the Lemon Hill estate of Henry Pratt, whose land was originally owned by Robert Morris, signer of the Declaration of Independence. Purchased by the city in 1844, the estate was dedicated to the public by city councils ordinance on September 15, 1855. A series of state and local legislative acts over the next three years increased the holdings of the city. In 1858, the city held a design competition to re-landscape Lemon Hill and Sedgeley for public use as the best way to better protect the citys water supply.(Ironically the land the Sedgeley mansion was built on had originally been owned by Robert Morris although after his bankruptcy it had been sold to a different purchaser then Henry Pratt).</p><br>
<p>The park was the site of the 1876 Centennial Exposition and the first zoo in the United States, the Philadelphia Zoo, and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. Wissahickon Valley Park, located adjacent to the park&#39;s immediate northwest, was included in the Fairmount Park NRHP registration document.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The outdoor scenes of the 2000 period art-horror film A Chronicle of Corpses were shot in Carpenter&#39;s Woods in the Wissahickon Valley Park part of Fairmount Park.</p><br>
<h2>Properties</h2><br>
<p>Park properties include the Centennial Arboretum, a Horticulture Center, Fairmount Water Works, Memorial Hall (home of the Please Touch Museum), Shofuso Japanese House and Garden, Boathouse Row, Smith Memorial Playground and Playhouse, recreation centers, reservoirs, statues and other pieces of art.</p><br>
<h3>Public art</h3><br>
<p>Fairmount Park is home to a large collection of public art, largely attributable to efforts of the Association for Public Art, known previously as the Fairmount Park Art Association, a non-profit organization founded in 1872 to embellish Fairmount Park with outdoor sculpture, including the Medici lions known as the Florentine Lions installed in 1887. The Art Association continues to commission and care for a large number of sculptures, in coordination with the park and city. In 2007, the Art Association installed Iroquois by Mark di Suvero near the Philadelphia Museum of Art on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway.</p><br>
<h3>Historic houses</h3><br>
<p>Mount Pleasant, built in 1762–65 for a Scottish ship captain named John Macpherson, is administered by the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The Art Museum also administers Cedar Grove Mansion, a house built in 1748–50 in what later became the Frankford neighborhood of the city. Cedar Grove was relocated to the park in 1926–1928.</p><br>
<p>Other historic houses in the park, listed by year of construction, include Boelson Cottage (1678–84), The Lilacs (c. 1711), Letitia Street House (c. 1713), Ridgeland Mansion (1719), Belmont Mansion (1745), The Cliffs (1753; ruins since a fire in 1986), Woodford Mansion (1756), Hatfield House (1760), Randolph House (c. 1767; renamed Laurel Hill Mansion in 1976), Strawberry Mansion (c. 1783–89), The Solitude (1784–85; located within the zoo), Sweetbriar Mansion (1797), Ormiston Mansion (1798), Lemon Hill Mansion (1800), Chamounix Mansion (1802), Rockland Mansion (c. 1810), and the Ohio House which was built for the Centennial Exposition of 1876.</p><br>
<p>Sedgeley Mansion was built in 1799 on Lemon Hill, then abandoned and later demolished after being acquired through eminent domain by the city in 1857. The Sedgeley property also included a servants cottage constructed of stone which still exists. The cottage was designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe and is presently known as the Sedgeley Porters House.</p><br>
<p>Belle Isle is a 54 acre island in the city of Richmond, Virginia on the James River, and is part of the James River Park System. It is accessible to pedestrian and bicycle traffic via a suspension footbridge that runs under the Robert E. Lee Memorial Bridge from the northern shore or via a wooden bridge from the southern shore. Except when the water level of the James is high, it is also reachable by foot from the southern shore via easy boulder-hopping. From Belle Isle, one can see Hollywood Cemetery, the old Tredegar Iron Works, and Richmond City&#39;s skyline. There are many bike trails around the island as well as a small cliff used for rock climbing instruction.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the 1600s, the area of Richmond, Virginia, was part of the Tsenacommacah, a homeland of the Powhatan people.</p><br>
<p>Belle Isle was originally known as Broad Rock Island by the English. It was first mapped by European John Smith of Jamestown in 1607. In the 18th century the island was occupied by a fishery. In 1814, the Old Dominion Iron and Nail Company completed a nail factory. During the 1860s, the island was inhabited by a village complete with a school, church, and general store.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War</h3><br>
<p>The island served as a prison for Union soldiers during the American Civil War. Between 1862 and 1865, the island was home to about 30,000 POWs and as many as 1,000 died, though accounts vary with the South claiming the death rate was low, while the North claimed it was very high. The Battle of Walkerton was the result of a failed Union attempt to free them.</p><br>
<p>John L. Ransom, late First Sergeant Ninth Michigan Cavalry, published in 1881 his Andersonville Diary which includes his account of life as a prisoner on Belle Isle during the winter of 1863-1864.</p><br>
<p>He described his arrival thus:</p><br>
<p>Arrived on the morning of Nov. 13th, seven days after capture, at the south end of the “long bridge,” ordered out of the cars and into line, counted off and started for Belle Isle. Said island is in the James River, probably covers ten or twelve acres, and is right across from Richmond. The river between Richmond and the island is probably a third or half a mile. The “long bridge” is near the lower part of the island. It is a cold, bleak piece of ground and the winter winds have free sweep from up the river. Before noon we were turned into the pen which is merely enclosed by a ditch and the dirt taken from the ditch thrown up on the outside, making a sort of breastwork. The ditch serves as a dead line, and no prisoners must go near the ditch. The prison is in command of a Lieut. Bossieux, a rather young and gallant looking sort of fellow. Is a born Southerner, talking so much like a negro that you would think he was one, if you could hear him talk and not see him. He has two rebel sergeants to act as his assistants, Sergt. Hight and Sergt. Marks. These two men are very cruel, as is also the Lieut. when angered. Outside the prison pen is a bake house, made of boards, the rebel tents for the accommodation of the officers and guard, and a hospital also of tent cloth. Running from the pen is a lane enclosed by high boards going to the water&#39;s edge. At night this is closed up by a gate at the pen, and thrown open in the morning. About half of the six thousand prisoners here have tents while the rest sleep and live out of doors.</p><br>
<p>In 1864, Peter DeWitt, Assistant Surgeon at Jarvis Hospital, Baltimore, received a number of prisoners recently released from the Prisoner of War camp at Belle Isle. He described the "great majority" of the patients as being:</p><br>
<p>in a semi-state of nudity...laboring under such diseases as chronic diarrhoea, phthisis pulmonalis, scurvy, frost bites, general debility, caused by starvation, neglect and exposure. Many of them had partially lost their reason, forgetting even the date of their capture, and everything connected with their antecedent history. They resemble, in many respect, patients laboring under cretinism. They were filthy in the extreme, covered in vermin...nearly all were extremely emaciated; so much so that they had to be cared for even like infants.</p><br>
<p>In May 1864, Lucius Eugene Chittenden, Assistant Secretary of the Treasury under President Abraham Lincoln was sent by the president to investigate freed prisoners from Belle Isle and gave his eyewitness account in, "Recollections of President Lincoln and His Administration," published in the late 1890s. He related the shock Lincoln shared at learning that Union prisoners had been left by the Confederates to freeze and starve to death in the shadow of the Confederate Capital.</p><br>
<h3>Twentieth century to present</h3><br>
<p>The Virginia Electric Power Company built and operated a hydroelectric power plant on the island between 1904 and 1963. Which has now been left vacant along with many other buildings.</p><br>
<p>Belle Isle is briefly mentioned in Chapter III of MacKinlay Kantor&#39;s Pulitzer Prize-winning novel about the Civil War, "Andersonville" (1955). Conditions at the prison camp are described in more detail in Chapters IX and XIII.</p><br>
<p>The original Lee Bridge was built over the island in 1934 and replaced by the current version in 1988. Belle Isle was formally made into a park in 1973.</p><br>
<p>In the 2001 movie Hannibal, the power plant can be seen as Agent Starling runs across the bridge on the south side of the island.</p><br>
<p>Belle Isle offers Richmonders the opportunity to view wildlife in its natural habitat, at a location only a few minutes from the heart of the city. Songbirds, ducks, cormorants and blue herons are a common sight. Squirrels, other small mammals, amphibians and reptiles also inhabit the island. Some sections of trails are a part of the East Coast Greenway.</p><br>
<p>Brookgreen Gardens is a sculpture garden and wildlife preserve, located just south of Murrells Inlet, in the USA state of South Carolina. The 9,100 acre property includes several themed gardens featuring American figurative sculptures, the Lowcountry Zoo, and trails through several ecosystems in nature reserves on the property. It was founded by Archer Milton Huntington, stepson of railroad magnate Collis Potter Huntington, and Anna Hyatt Huntington, his wife, to feature sculptures by Anna and her sister Harriet Randolph Hyatt Mayor, along with other American sculptors. Brookgreen Gardens was opened in 1932. It was developed on property of four former rice plantations, taking its name from the former Brookgreen Plantation, which dates to the antebellum period.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>The property that now comprises Brookgreen Gardens was four rice plantations. The plantations from south to north were The Oaks, Brookgreen, Springfield, and Laurel Hill. The current gardens and surrounding facilities are located completely within the former Brookgreen Plantation, which was owned by Joshua John Ward. Before his death in 1853, he held more than 1,000 enslaved African Americans and in 1860 his estate (in his name) was the largest slaveholder in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Only a handful of relics survive on the former plantations. The Alston (or Allston) cemetery survives on the grounds of The Oaks plantation. Gov. Joseph Alston and his child are buried in the cemetery. The same grave is a memorial to the governor&#39;s wife Theodosia Burr Alston, daughter of Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr, who was lost at sea. Her ghost is said to haunt the Grand Strand, looking for her father. The rice mill at Laurel Hill is all that stands of that plantation today. During the American Civil War, Confederates built an earthen structure on the grounds to block Union Navy ships from coming into the tidal rivers.</p><br>
<h2>The Huntingtons</h2><br>
<p>Archer and Anna Hyatt Huntington of Redding, Connecticut purchased the four plantations in order to develop gardens to showcase her sculptures. Situated on Waccamaw Neck in Georgetown County, South Carolina, between the Waccamaw River and the Atlantic Ocean, Brookgreen Gardens is the country&#39;s first public sculpture garden. It has the largest collection in the world of figurative sculpture by American artists in an outdoor setting. It is also a nature and historical preserve with a small zoo and a nature exhibition center.</p><br>
<p>Archer and Anna Hyatt Huntington first visited the area in 1929. Because they were captivated by its beauty, they purchased nearly 9,100 acre of forest, swamp, rice fields, and beachfront. They intended to establish a winter home on the coast, but Anna saw the potential of the property. They began to develop her vision of making it a showcase for her sculptures. Archer, son of philanthropists Arabella Worsham Huntington and stepson of Collis Huntington, and Anna have donated property and contributed to USA arts and culture in a number of states. Her sculpture of Joan of Arc is a feature of New York City&#39;s Riverside Park.</p><br>
<h2>Public landmark</h2><br>
<h3>Sculpture gardens</h3><br>
<p>About 1,445 works of American figurative sculpture are displayed at the Archer and Anna Hyatt Huntington Sculpture Garden. Many of the works are by Hyatt Huntington, but other artists are also featured. Walkways and garden paths link the sculptures in their distinctive garden, fountain, or landscape settings, with vistas of the scenery surrounding them.</p><br>
<p>A 1,600 acre area of Brookgreen Gardens was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. The sculpture garden portion, 551 acre, of Brookgreen Gardens was included in the designation of Atalaya and Brookgreen Gardens as a National Historic Landmark in 1984. Atalaya Castle is just across USA 17, which cuts through the former combined Huntington property. A seventy-inch long sea horse, sculpted by Joseph Kiselewski, was place in Brookgreen Gardens in 1942.</p><br>
<p>The sculpture gardens also include works by:</p><br>
<p>Robert Alexander Baillie</p><br>
<p>Gutzon Borglum</p><br>
<p>Joseph Lorkowski Boulton</p><br>
<p>Clio Hinton Bracken</p><br>
<p>Cornelia Van Auken Chapin</p><br>
<p>Henry Clews</p><br>
<p>Joseph Bailey Ellis</p><br>
<p>Sally James Farnham</p><br>
<p>Joseph Charles Fleri</p><br>
<p>Vincent Glinsky</p><br>
<p>Karl Gruppe</p><br>
<p>Ethel Painter Hood</p><br>
<p>Edith Howland</p><br>
<p>Cecil de Blaquiere Howard</p><br>
<p>Anna Hyatt Huntington</p><br>
<p>Leo Lentelli</p><br>
<p>Donald De Lue</p><br>
<p>Albino Manca</p><br>
<p>Edward Francis McCartan</p><br>
<p>Eleanor Mary Mellon</p><br>
<p>Roland Hinton Perry</p><br>
<p>Attilio Piccirilli</p><br>
<p>Furio Piccirilli</p><br>
<p>Horatio Piccirilli</p><br>
<p>Augustus Saint-Gaudens</p><br>
<p>Louis St. Gaudens</p><br>
<p>Marion Sanford</p><br>
<p>Janet Scudder</p><br>
<p>Amory Coffin Simons</p><br>
<p>Erwin Springweiler</p><br>
<p>Charles Eugene Tefft</p><br>
<h3>Lowcountry Trail</h3><br>
<p>Winner of the South Carolina Heritage Tourism Award, the Lowcountry Trail is a boardwalk that crosses the hillside overlooking Mainfield, a restored rice field of the former Brookgreen Plantation. For enslaved African Americans on Brookgreen Plantation, this hill was a bridge between the world of daily work and life in the slave village beyond the crest of the hill. The rhythms of life – planting, growing, harvesting, threshing – changed seasonally for everyone on the rice plantation.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological survey and excavation projects have revealed the remains of four structures on the hillside: the site of the overseer&#39;s residence at the apex of the hill, and its kitchen, smokehouse and dependency closer to the edge of the rice field. Along the trail, interpretive panels that describe life on a rice plantation and four stainless steel figures have been placed to represent the Plantation Owner, the Overseer, and an Enslaved African Male and an Enslaved African Female. These figures were created in stainless steel by Babette Bloch.</p><br>
<h4>Lowcountry Trail Audio Tour</h4><br>
<p>The Lowcountry Trail Audio Tour is a public education program that emphasizes historic preservation. The tour winds along the Ricefield Overlook and adjacent rice field and is free with garden admission.</p><br>
<h3>Zoo and plantation sites</h3><br>
<p>The Lowcountry Zoo and the Lowcountry Center are also on the property. Trekker tours are conducted on the backroads of the former plantations. Recent archeological work has uncovered the foundations of several buildings at The Oaks plantation. Ponds have been created from the former Brookgreen plantation house sites.</p><br>
<h3>Natural areas</h3><br>
<p>The Atlantic Coast side of the property was later leased to the state of South Carolina to form Huntington Beach State Park. Boat tours are available from here with views of Sandy Island. A self-guided tour of the nature trail shows off the 2000 identified species of life, including longleaf pines, Spanish moss draped live oaks, and vistas of the river, and nearby marshland. The gardens make every effort to preserve the natural environment.</p><br>
<h3>Nights of a Thousand Candles</h3><br>
<p>Every year, the Brookgreen Gardens are lit with more than 2,700 candles and countless lights set among the plants, trees and sculptures of the garden. Tickets for the same are available every year for visitors.</p><br>
<h3>Labyrinth</h3><br>
<p>The Labyrinth at Brookgreen Gardens is located along the north end of the Trail Beyond the Garden Wall. It was built in 2009 and underwent a substantial redesign in 2014 under the direction of artist Kenny Pellar. It is maintained today by both staff and volunteers as an oasis for members and guests. The Labyrinth is available to walkers any time the Gardens are open. However, the Labyrinth will be closed when weather or river conditions indicate safety concerns.</p><br>
<h2>Awards and recognition</h2><br>
<p>Top 10 Public Gardens in the USA by Coastal Living Magazine</p><br>
<p>American Public Gardens Association Award for Garden Excellence, 2019</p><br>
<p>Gari Melchers Memorial Medal from the Artists’ Fellowship, 2018</p><br>
<p>USAToday 10Best - #9 in Best Botanical Garden category, 2018</p><br>
<p>USAToday 10Best - Nights of a Thousand Candles Top 10 in Best Botanical Garden Holiday Lights category, 2018</p><br>
<p>The Clinton–Kalamazoo Canal is a canal in Michigan that was abandoned after being only partially completed. The canal was to connect Lake St. Clair with Lake Michigan. Project backers were inspired by the success of the Erie Canal in New York, which was completed in 1825. After gaining statehood in 1837, Michigan elected its first governor, Stevens Thomson Mason, who initiated an ambitious program of internal improvements, including three railroads and two canals. On March 21, 1837, the Legislature authorized Governor Mason to contract a loan for the construction of the canal from Mt. Clemens to Rochester, a railroad from Shelby to Detroit, a railroad from Detroit across the State  and a railroad from Port Huron into the interior, to be known as the Port Huron & Grand River road. In the spring of 1838, a Board of Commissioners composed of seven men, was appointed to take charge of the canal work.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>As the primary inland waterway into Macomb County, the Clinton River served an essential role in the early days of the Michigan Territory. Both the cities of Mt Clemens and Utica were founded (in part) based on their proximity to the Clinton River and farmer-settlers flocking to the territory bought up land first along its shores.</p><br>
<p>Because rivers, at the time, were the only practical means of transporting goods, both Utica and Mt Clemens became important early towns. Utica, with its milling operations and neighboring farms, became an important dropping-off point for farmers looking to sell their crops. The cargo, loaded in Utica, was sent to Mt Clemens, which was already building itself as a primary supplier to the growing City of Detroit.</p><br>
<h3>First Attempt at Regulating River Traffic: The Clinton River Navigation Company</h3><br>
<p>The first attempt to regulate the flow of cargo and passengers along the Clinton River came in the form of the Clinton River Navigation Company; incorporated by the Territorial Government on April 12, 1827; authorized for the purpose of removing obstructions from the Clinton river, and making such river navigable for boats from the village of Mount Clemens to Mack&#39;s lower mills (so called), in the county of Oakland."</p><br>
<p>The length of this proposed private enterprise was about thirty miles, and it was calculated that it would afford invaluable shipping facilities to a large extent of rich agricultural country.</p><br>
<p>The incorporators of this company were Nathaniel Millard, Jonathan Kearsley, Levi Cook, Charles Larned, Ellis Doty, John R. Sheldon, Christian Clemens, Alfred Ashley, Jacob Tucker, Ignace Morass, and Joseph Hayes. The company were required, under the act of incorporation, to clear out the river to the east line of Oakland County, commencing on or before the first day of July, 1827, and when they had made it navigable for flat-bottomed boats or bateaux to the line of the county, they were to be entitled to collect toll, not exceeding fifty cents per ton for the whole distance and proportionally for less distances. When the river was made navigable as far as Mack&#39;s mill, and a good towpath constructed on one bank, the company were entitled to demand toll not exceeding seventy-five cents per ton for the whole distance and in proportion for a less distance.</p><br>
<p>Parties owning water power on the river below the east line of Oakland County were required to construct locks at every dam sufficient for the passage of the company&#39;s boats. The river above the said line was declared by the act of incorporation a public highway, but persons owning land extending across the river had the right to construct dams for water-power purposes by putting in the necessary locks, or the company could construct them at the expense of the parties owning the lands. The improvements were finally completed as far as Rochester, a portion of the State loan of five millions being appropriated to the work. Business was carried on to a small extent for a number of years, but the enterprise was never a prosperous one.</p><br>
<p>It is unknown whether this company met the requirements of its incorporation; or how long they were in operation if they succeeded.</p><br>
<h3>The Clinton-Kalamazoo Canal</h3><br>
<p>Following the success of the Erie Canal, and Michigan becoming a state in January 1837; several acts were passed providing for building of three railroads, and the Clinton–Kalamazoo Canal. These projects were to be financed through a $5 million loan; and payment for the loan would be funded through the states portion on future sale of public lands.</p><br>
<p>The Clinton–Kalamazoo Canal was to begin in Mount Clemens on the banks of the Clinton River and continue through Utica, Rochester, Pontiac, Howell, Hastings, and finally to the mouth of the Kalamazoo River. In all, the canal was to span 216 miles. From Pontiac westward, the canal would carry new settlers and supplies to the interior of the state and eventually connect with the "thriving" Lake Michigan port of Singapore (now a ghost town). Singapore was to ship passengers and freight to Chicago across Lake Michigan.</p><br>
<p>Construction began in 1838 with much fanfare. The groundbreaking ceremony, held on August 8, 1838 was attended by many notable residents and involved parties; with Governor Mason attending, and taking the ceremonial first shovel.</p><br>
<p>Financial troubles related to the Panic of 1837 caused funding for the canal to disappear. All construction stopped in 1843 after only 13 miles had been completed. Many workers who were unpaid destroyed parts of the canal and stole supplies. Engineering miscalculations also contributed to the canal&#39;s failure, as the canal was dug too shallow and too narrow for heavy freight barges.</p><br>
<p>About 1844, Amos Brown, of Rochester, constructed and launched a log flatboat, and collecting a party of his friends, they proceeded to celebrate the occasion by a grand ride on the canal, but when they came to the first lock, they found their craft too wide to admit of a passage. The locks were constructed of logs, and the pressure of the super-incumbent earth against their sides had sprung them in, narrowing the space considerably. A fellow who had served a term in the State prison made quite a speculation by burning some of the locks and selling the old iron.</p><br>
<p>A dam was built at Frederick across the Clinton to supply the locks, and in 1845, boats were running from Utica to Frederick. That year, the revenue to the State from canal tolls was $46.90; the next year, it was $43.44; in 1847, the income was even less, and, in 1848, the canal was in disuse. After construction ended, the canal quickly fell into disrepair. Portions were used as a millrace to power watermills that operated until the 1940s. The canal was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. The route of the canal has been marked by signs and historic markers.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Remnants of the canal are still visible in Rochester Hills in Oakland County and in Shelby Township, Utica and Clinton Township in Macomb County. Much of the canal is clearly visible in parks and along Canal Road in Clinton Township. In River Bends Park multiple mountain biking and hiking trails run along the edge of the canal. The remains of the aqueduct built over the Clinton River can be seen in Yates Park, and two wood dams can be seen in the river in Canal Park and Bloomer Park. No locks are visible along the canal but the locations of a few are known.</p><br>
<p>Red Rocks Park is a mountain park in Jefferson County, Colorado, owned and maintained by the city of Denver as part of the Denver Mountain Parks system. The park is known for its very large red sandstone outcrops. Many of these rock formations within the park have names, from the mushroom-shaped Seat of Pluto to the inclined Cave of the Seven Ladders. The most visited rocks, around Red Rocks Amphitheatre, are Creation Rock to the north, Ship Rock to the south, and Stage Rock to the east.</p><br>
<p>The red sandstone found throughout Red Rocks Park is geologically identified as belonging to the Fountain Formation. Other Colorado examples of Fountain Formation geology include nearby Roxborough State Park, Garden of the Gods near Colorado Springs, and the Flatirons near Boulder. The rocks were formed about 290-296 million years ago when the Ancestral Rocky Mountains were eroded during the Pennsylvanian epoch. Later, uplift during the Laramide orogeny tilted the rocks to the angle at which they sit today.</p><br>
<p>An Army expedition led by Stephen Long discovered present-day Red Rocks in 1820. The park was in times far past a favored campsite of the Ute tribe for it provided natural cover from the elements. Its earliest known name was the Garden of the Angels, reputedly given to it on July 4, 1870, by Martin Van Buren Luther, a pioneer Colorado judge. In 1872, Marion Burts became the first recorded owner of Red Rocks. He sold it to Leonard H. Eicholtz, a civil engineer who helped build the Union Pacific Railway and who developed the property into a park in 1878. Eicholtz added roads, trails, picnic grounds, steps, and ladders so visitors could explore the park. In 1906, Eicholtz sold Red Rocks to famed editor John Brisben Walker which he purchased with proceeds from his sale of Cosmopolitan magazine; Walker organized concerts on a temporary platform at the Garden of the Titans. Known however by the folk name of Red Rocks since the area was settled, it was formally given that name when Denver acquired it in 1928 from Walker.</p><br>
<p>Within the park boundaries is the Red Rocks Amphitheatre, a venue used since 1941. The Amphitheater was designed by Burnam Hoyt within the area between two massive slabs of Red stone (Ship Rock and Creation Rock).</p><br>
<h2>Park construction</h2><br>
<p>Denver Mayor Ben Stapleton resisted developing the already beautiful Red Rocks but the city used Depression-era New Deal funding and resources to build out the park, as part of the development of the Denver Mountain Parks system. City planner George Cranmer oversaw the development, securing federal funding and establishment of a Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camp at Mount Morrison to facilitate the construction of the park&#39;s features. CCC crews were responsible for building out the early roads and the amphitheater, as well as a Pueblo-style concession stand. The park along with surviving CCC camp (which is one of the best preserved of such camps) were designated a National Historic Landmark in 2015.</p><br>
<h2>Trails</h2><br>
<p>There are several short, pedestrian-only trails in the park: Funicular Trail, Geologic Overlook Trail, Mt. Vernon Creek Trail, Red Rocks Trail, and the Trading Post Trail. Other multi-use trails are open to mountain bikes, horses, and leashed dogs.</p><br>
<p>P1010377redrocksfall.jpgLayered feature in Red Rocks Park, Colorado. Features in the Red Rocks region were caused by the uplift of mountains.</p><br>
<p>John Denver "Spirit" statue, Red Rocks Park, Morrison, Colorado.jpgJohn Denver "Spirit" statue</p><br>
<p>Close up of red rock in the Red Rocks Park, Morrison, Colorado.jpgClose-up of red rock</p><br>
<p>Sunburst on trail in the Red Rocks Park, Morrison, Colorado.jpgSunburst on trail</p><br>
<p>Bridge in Red Rocks Park, Morrison, Colorado.jpgBridge in Red Rocks Park</p><br>
<p>Trading Post Trail sign, Red Rocks Park, Morrison, Colorado.jpgTrading Post Trail sign</p><br>
<p>Red Rocks Park flower.jpgRed Rocks Park</p><br>
<p>Red Rocks Park in Denver.jpgRed Rocks Park in Denver</p><br>
<p>Old Pasadena, often referred to as Old Town Pasadena or simply Old Town, is the original commercial center of Pasadena, a city in California, United States, and had a latter-day revitalization after a period of decay.</p><br>
<p>Old Pasadena began as the center of a research hub where science and research institutions such as Caltech and Jet Propulsion Laboratory and companies such as Beckman Instruments and Aerojet were founded. The large concentration of such companies in the area gave it the nickname "Athens of the West".</p><br>
<p>The area was also an artistic center, the home to Andy Warhol&#39;s West Coast museum debut and the first Marcel Duchamp retrospective, both at the Pasadena Art Museum (one of the earliest modern art museums in the country, now the Norton Simon Museum). Before that, Pasadena was a center of suffragist and pacifist movements and other liberal causes. By the late 1940s, the downtown area was blighted by flophouses, dive bars and pawn shops. It later became a hippie destination, with head shops, adult bookstores and massage parlors. By the late 1980s, Old Pasadena was undergoing a period of urban renewal and regeneration.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Fair Oaks and Colorado Boulevard</h3><br>
<p>Old Pasadenas center is the postal zero/zero intersection for the city of Pasadena at Fair Oaks Avenue (N-S) and Colorado Boulevard (E-W). The first of the businesses of the original Indiana Colony were established at old Pasadena. J. D. Hollingsworths general store served as the main supplier for the town as well as the post office when mail arrived from Los Angeles.</p><br>
<p>On the northwest corner was the Grand Hotel, in a building originally owned by Barney Williams, where the Williams family had run a general store on the ground floor. On the southwest corner (1 Fair Oaks Avenue) stood Williams Hall, also owned by the Williams family; this building was re-modeled in 1902 and became known as the Dodsworth Building, and now houses the Dodsworth Hotel.</p><br>
<p>The first meeting of Masons in Pasadena, later to become Pasadena Masonic Lodge No. 272, took place on 20 February 1883. A meeting in the library hall followed in October, at which the newly elected officials decided to make Williams Hall their permanent meeting place. An ornate front, similar to the facade of the present lodge, was erected on the upper story of the Colorado Boulevard building by H. Ridgway, an architect who was Master of the lodge in 1886. The Lodge continued to grow, and by 1917 it encompassed three separate lodges and fourteen affiliated bodies.</p><br>
<p>From the 1940s until the early 1970s, the Dodsworth Building, still displaying the masonic compass symbol on the inscribed stone in front of the building on its lower sides, contained a five-story furniture store belonging to Harry Steinberg and his son Albert Philip Steinberg, a 32nd degree mason and Shriner; that cornerstone now sits at the southwest corner of the Pasadena Masonic Temple at 200 S. Euclid Avenue.</p><br>
<h3>Schoolhouse Block</h3><br>
<p>In its infancy, the Indiana Colony was a quiet farming community centered around Orange Grove Boulevard, about a half mile west of Fair Oaks Avenue. Fair Oaks Avenue, just south of Colorado Boulevard, became the site of a new school, the Fair Oaks schoolhouse, a gift from Benjamin "Don Benito" Wilson. Fearing for the safety of children, the council of city fathers sought to move the schoolhouse away from the developing center of the town and its bustling activity, but Benjamin Wilson had died and his estate had passed to family members still living in the area. The council sought permission from the family on the understanding that the school would be moved immediately for the benefit of the children, but an improved school would be established somewhere outside Old Pasadena soon thereafter. The block of Fair Oaks Avenue, Colorado Boulevard, Raymond Avenue, and Green Street retained the name "schoolhouse block."</p><br>
<p>No record of the subsequent location of the school was retained in the records, but the location of the new school can be drawn from several historical accounts. Hiram Reid&#39;s History of Pasadena (1895) states that the schoolhouse was "moved several feet east to a frontage on Raymond 500 feet north of a line parallel to the north wall of the Post Office building." In 1895 the Post Office was in the Morgan Block just north of Kansas Street (Green Street). Reid goes on to say that "a beautiful new edifice stands there now," a reference to the Van der Vort building, built in 1894, replacing the schoolhouse. Eventually that building was sold to someone who moved it away for a residence, and a new Wilson School was later built outside of Old Pasadena, 4.2 miles to the east on Del Mar Boulevard and Madre Street.</p><br>
<p>Downtown Pasadena is currently served by Roosevelt, San Rafael, and McKinley Elementary Schools; Blair, and McKinley Middle Schools, and Blair International Baccalaureate School. Maranatha High School is a Christian school in the area.</p><br>
<h3>Castle Green</h3><br>
<p>As Pasadenas population grew in the late 19th and early 20th century, grand hotels were built which established Pasadenas national reputation as a winter tourist destination for the wealthy. In 1887 Edward C. Webster began construction of a hotel at 1929 Green Street, on the southeast corner of Raymond Avenue and Kansas Street. When he was unable to complete the job, a newcomer to the area, Colonel George Gill Green, took over the construction and finished the Green Hotel, which opened in 1888.</p><br>
<p>Green was a friend of Andrew McNally, a prominent printer from Chicago who had moved West and made his home in Altadena. McNally had invited Green to come out and join him in this new community. Together Green and McNally invested heavily in the short-lived Altadena Railroad, which provided them private sidings at their residences and which Green rode daily to the construction site of his new hotel. Green and Andrew McNally were next door neighbors on Mariposa Street just west of Lake Avenue. The McNally home still stands and the old Green carriage house remains in use as a residence, and is visible from the rear parking lot of the Altadena Library, which stands on the site of the Green house.</p><br>
<p>The new Green Hotel was a 6-story edifice that faced Central Park on South Raymond, just north of the original Victorian Pasadena Train Station, where trains stopped between Chicago and Los Angeles. That station was replaced by the current station, in the Southwestern style.</p><br>
<p>In 1898, Green built a grander Mediterranean style hotel on the opposite side of Raymond. The first became referred to as the annex, and the second became the winter home for some of the most prominent industrial magnates in the Eastern United States. The two buildings were connected by a bridge across Raymond, and a tunnel under it. Guests arriving by train would pass through the annex, to the second floor, and be trammed across the bridge. In the main residence they would retire to their suites, and the luggage would follow via the tunnel. Many of the servants and attendants of the guests were forced to find accommodation in the adjacent buildings. In 1902 a new wing of the hotel was built along Kansas (now Green) Street to the P.G. Wooster Block, home of Throop University (forerunner to Caltech).</p><br>
<p>In 1924 the hotel was converted into residential apartments. The original building (annex) was razed to its first floor. All that is left of that original hotel is a portico on the corner of Raymond and Green. The building is now owned by Stats Floral Supply. In 1970, the USA government&#39;s Department of Housing and Urban Development acquired the 1902 wing and separated the buildings into the Green Hotel on Green and the Castle Green on Raymond.</p><br>
<h3>Other developments</h3><br>
<p>In 1887, a Chicago land speculator named Morgan built a three-story block next to the site of the County Jail. In 1895, John Woodbury built a modest office building for himself which he shared with Jared S. Torrance. This building was replaced by the Marsh Block in 1902, which took up the whole corner lot of Raymond and Kansas south of the Morgan. In 1894 Van der Vort constructed the building that still bears his name at 32 S. Raymond. In 1889, Robert MacComber built the MacComber block on the northwest corner of Raymond and Kansas. In 1906 Braley built a bike manufacturing building, which eventually became an Oldsmobile dealership.</p><br>
<p>In 1887, a three-story Victorian red-brick building with bay windows and a turret on the southeast corner was constructed at 107 South Fair Oaks on the northwest corner at Dayton Street. It was named the "Doty Block" and housed a stagecoach showroom. In later years, it became The Mikado Hotel, which served the Japanese-American community. It became a freight depot for the Pasadena and Los Angeles Railroad, which later became part of the Pacific Electric Railway. Above the second floor windows on the south wall, the faint lettering "Pasadena and Los Angeles" that advertised that service can be seen today.</p><br>
<p>During the 1900s to the 1940s, Downtown Pasadena went through rapid change as the city&#39;s population was continuously growing. Despite The Depression that occurred in the 1930s, Downtown Pasadena continued developing. Its hotels were converted into industrial, manufacturing and research offices. The transition of Downtown Pasadena from a tourist destination to an industrial site allowed for the area to continue its expansion and growth.</p><br>
<p>In the 1940s, the building became Pasadenas first black-owned hotel, the Hotel Carver, when it was purchased and operated by Percy Clark and his sons Percy Jr., Robert and Littleton. In the basement was a prominent jazz club known first as the Onyx Club and later as the Cobra Club. In 1970, the hotel was sold and the building was converted into artist and performance studios. Over the next fifteen years, hundreds of artists, musicians, writers, dancers and filmmakers rented space at the Hotel Carver. The building was best known during this period for the John Bull English Pub, operated by Danny and Denise Sharp, and for the quirky word mural by Paul Waszink on the north wall reading: "My people are the people of the dessert," said T.E. Lawrence, picking up his fork. Several art shows were held in the third-floor ballroom and other parts of the building. In 1985, the artists were evicted and the building closed. The 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake caused the collapse of the building immediately to the north of the Carver, and caused a large section of bricks on the top of the north wall to fall to the ground, destroying part of Waszinks T.E. Lawrence mural. Following the earthquake, the north wall was re-bricked and the building remodeled and earthquake retrofitted, as part of the general redevelopment of Old Pasadena.</p><br>
<p>Robertson Motors built an auto factory just south of the Green Hotel Annex, which is now occupied by Fishbeck Furnishings.</p><br>
<p>In 1911, City Hall occupied a building at Union Street and Fair Oaks Avenue. Since then, City Hall has moved several times, and the building was lost, only to be replaced in 2003 by a quasi replica now known as the Container Store. The California National Guard used several buildings in Old Pasadena before they built The Armory on Raymond above Holly. The old brick building on Holly across from the senior center was a National Guard motor depot.</p><br>
<p>In 1929, Colorado Street (now Colorado Boulevard) was widened on the north side, and many of the elaborate Victorian facades of the buildings were lost to reconstruction and replaced with cheaper and more modern frontages. Colorado Street became 14 feet wider as a result. In 1929, Kansas Street was widened and renamed Green Street. Union and Holly streets were part of a city gateway that were to lead toward City Hall (1933) from the statue and flag at Orange Grove Boulevard and Colorado Boulevard. The whole plan was scaled down, but the streets were put in.</p><br>
<h3>Historic District</h3><br>
<p>As Downtown Pasadena was going through a time of decline during the 1970s, the city had established a Central District Improvement Plan which to improve the conditions of the area. The plan involved the demolition of old historical buildings in order to make way for more modern buildings. However, there was a preservationist group called Pasadena Heritage that fought to save and redevelop the existing historic structures. Pasadena Heritage was founded in 1977 to save Civic Center buildings that were facing demolition.</p><br>
<p>The Historic Old Pasadena District was designated in 1980 as a historic district of the Pasadena Charter, defined by its boundaries: to the North, Holly Street from Fair Oaks Avenue to Arroyo Parkway; to the East, Arroyo Parkway south to Green Street, moving half a block west to the old Santa Fe RR right-of-way; continuing south to encompass the Old Train Station and Central Park, then north on Fair Oaks Avenue to De Lacey Street, then west to Pasadena Avenue; on the West by Pasadena Avenue, north to Union Street, back to Fair Oaks Avenue, and north to Holly Street.</p><br>
<p>It was chartered as a means of revitalizing the oldest part of Pasadena, which, though not abandoned, had fallen derelict and was economically and commercially barren. With this charter, a controlled redevelopment was established, with federal tax incentives to qualifying investors. Under strict guidelines, buildings were stripped of old paint, revealing some of the early brickwork fasciae. All renovations and remodeling were overseen by a city commission, which approved materials, colors and styles, most of which were to reflect the period from 1925 to 1940.</p><br>
<p>The Old Pasadena Historic District was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.</p><br>
<h2>Old Pasadena today</h2><br>
<p>As business started to move out of Downtown Pasadena in the 1950s, the area started to go through a period of decline. This area began to be known as Skid Row as buildings were left abandoned. Pasadenas downtown declined between 1930 and 1980, but has since been revived as “Old Pasadena”, one of Southern Californias most popular shopping and entertainment destinations.</p><br>
<p>Redevelopment of the downtown area started as there was an infusion of about more than $400 million in public and private money. With the infusion in money, it allowed for private property developments, street improvements, and construction of new buildings such as more parking garages and a retail shopping center. However, not all of this money was focused on new buildings as existing structures were rehabilitated. The existing buildings were redeveloped in order to recreate old Downtown Pasadena. As the redevelopment plans were completed, Downtown Pasadena went through a period of continuous growth. According to Shigley, Pasadena became a model of smart growth for California. This was because of the mixed-use buildings with housing units, retail shops, and professional services which allowed for the growth of Downtown Pasadena commercially and residentially.</p><br>
<p>Old Pasadena today is mostly a business district, with some mixed use. It contains a shopping mall, up-market restaurants, a movie theater, nightclubs, shops, outdoor cafés, pubs and comedy clubs, and has an active nightlife. The Pasadena Playhouse is located in Old Pasadena. Most of the buildings also have offices and apartments on the upper floors.</p><br>
<p>Old Pasadena is connected to Downtown Los Angeles via the Metro A Line light rail. Del Mar station is two blocks south of Colorado Boulevard, while Memorial Park station enters from Holly Street and Arroyo Parkway. The Norton Simon Museum is located at Orange Grove Boulevard and Colorado Boulevard. Pacific Oaks College Eureka campus is located at Fair Oaks Avenue and Eureka Street, the very north end of Old Pasadena. On New Year&#39;s Day, the Tournament of Roses Parade travels through Old Pasadena on Colorado Boulevard. The spectacle draws an average of 1.5 million spectators each year, thousands of whom camp overnight on the route to have a prime view of the parade.</p><br>
<p>ArtPerformance is an annual outdoor music event featuring free concerts on multiple stages throughout Old Pasadena, in conjunction with PasadenART Weekend, a three-day citywide event.</p><br>
<p>Three street intersections in Old Pasadena, Colorado/DeLacey, Colorado/Fair Oaks and Colorado/Raymond, use the pedestrian scramble system, as used in Tokyo, Las Vegas Strip in Nevada, and Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<h3>Mass transit</h3><br>
<p>The Metro A Line has two stations Downtown, at and stations. Downtown is also served by Metro Local lines 180, 260, 261, 267, 501, 660 and 662 as well as Pasadena Transit lines 10, 20, 33, 40, 51, 52, and 53; and Foothill Transit line 187.</p><br>
<h3>Major streets</h3><br>
<p>Arroyo Parkway</p><br>
<p>Colorado Boulevard</p><br>
<p>Fair Oaks Avenue</p><br>
<p>Holly Street</p><br>
<p>Orange Grove Boulevard</p><br>
<p>Pasadena Avenue</p><br>
<h3>Highways</h3><br>
<p>USA Highway 66</p><br>
<p>Interstate 210</p><br>
<p>California State Route 110</p><br>
<p>California State Route 134</p><br>
<p>California State Route 710</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Notable people who have lived or spent time in Old Pasadena include General George Patton, Alexander Calder, Upton Sinclair, L. Ron Hubbard, Jack Parsons, Albert Einstein, Bobby Fischer and David Lee Roth.</p><br>
<p>The Workman and Temple Family Homestead Museum is a historic house museum located at 15415 East Don Julian Road in City of Industry, California, that features the homes and private cemetery that belonged to the pioneer Workman-Temple family.</p><br>
<h2>Workman House</h2><br>
<p>Born in England, William Workman (1799&ndash;1876) immigrated to the United States as a young man with his older brother David. He migrated to Taos, where he married and worked for some time. Then he went further west, to the San Gabriel Valley in 1841, then within Alta California of the Mexican Republic.</p><br>
<p>He bought part of the Rancho La Puente and built an adobe house in 1842. It was enlarged over the years and, by 1870, was remodeled with the addition of brick wings and a second story, as well as impressive exterior decorative details. This renovation was said to have been designed by the first trained architect in Los Angeles, Ezra F. Kysor, designer of the extant Pico House hotel, St. Vibianas Cathedral, and the Perry House, all in Los Angeles. But there is no known documentation of Kysors work on the building. The Workman Adobe was placed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on November 20, 1974. It was added to the California State Register of Historic Landmarks, No. 874, in conjunction with the family "El Campo Santo" Cemetery on the site. An historic marker was placed on the site on 5 November 1976, the 135th anniversary of the arrival of the Workman family to the area.</p><br>
<p>The broad outlines of the structure, including large porches on the north and south sides, measure 19 deep by 72 wide. There are eight rooms on the first floor and three finished rooms (with three others evidently finished in the late 19th century) on the second story. The home was dramatically altered over the years, especially when it was used for military school classrooms from 1930 to 1935. It was later used as a residence and then office and nurses&#39; quarters for El Encanto sanitarium from 1940 to 1963. The home and cemetery were then purchased by the City of Industry. Many original details have long been lost, but historic elements survive, such as the ca. 1870 interior staircase, two marble coal-burning fireplaces from the same period, and a ceiling cartouche from that era. Late 1970s-era restoration efforts were limited to the outside of the structure. The entire east wall was reconstructed, as it was mostly of adobe and had collapsed during work in 1977.</p><br>
<p>Two houses are open for tours on the property: admission is free, as is parking. Each is a 45-minute guided only tour. Several aspects of the house remain off limits: the cellars, upstairs of the Workman home, and dormitories of the former military school.</p><br>
<h2>La Casa Nueva (Temple residence)</h2><br>
<p>The Homestead Museum also includes "La Casa Nueva" a spectacular example of Spanish Colonial Revival style, built by the Temple family between 1922 and 1927. The family&#39;s own design was drawn up by the well-known Los Angeles architectural firm of Walker and Eisen, although in 1924, Beverly Hills-based architect Roy Selden Price was hired to reconfigure the design.</p><br>
<p>The structure is largely built of adobe bricks handmade by artisans led by Pablo Urzua of Guadalajara, Jalisco, while the supervising contractor was Sylvester Cook of Whittier. The home (9,000 square feet, as built, with 2,000 ft&sup2; of dormitory space constructed in 1930 for a military school using the home) contains twenty-six rooms, including nine bedrooms, six bathrooms, a barber shop, commercial size electric cold storage unit, basement with a late 1870s bank vault for storage, and other notable features such as hand painted designs on windows as well as a vibrant use of stained glass of the period. The home is also unique as it features a madonna with child, however not with a traditional face, the face is more contemporary; wearing makeup, facial structure changed etc. The home was lived in by the Temple family for only two full years (1928 and 1929) as a fully completed structure, the home was leased to Lawrence Lewis, who was headmaster of a boys&#39; military academy, Raenford (later Golden State), which moved from Redondo Beach and operated at the 92 acre ranch from 1930 to 1935. The home and property were then owned by the California Bank and occupied by caretakers until purchased in October 1940 by Harry and Lois Brown, operators of El Encanto, a sanitarium moved to the site from Monrovia. The Brown family took excellent care of the house until it was sold to the City of Industry in 1975.</p><br>
<p>Restoration took place in subsequent years with the home opened as part of the Workman and Temple Family Homestead Museum in May 1981. While most of the house was intact, some replication was done and the house was almost entirely furnished with acquired period pieces, though some original family furniture and artifacts have been donated by Temple descendants.</p><br>
<h2>El Campo Santo Cemetery</h2><br>
<p>The family cemetery, El Campo Santo, was established in the 1850s. The earliest documented date is the burial of founder William Workmans older brother, David, in November 1855. A year later, artist Henry Miller, touring California to visit and sketch the Spanish and Mexican-era Roman Catholic missions, stayed at the Workman House and prepared sketches for a chapel contemplated by Workman. On 30 May 1857, the cornerstone to St. Nicholass Chapel (named in honor of Workmans wife, Nicolasa Urioste de Valencia) was laid and blessed by Bishop Thaddeus Amat. Construction of the Gothic Revival structure, which measured 24 x 48&#39; and featured gilt ceilings and stained glass windows, was completed by the early 1860s. The cemetery was used exclusively as a private burial ground for Workman and Temple family members and friends. and Masses were regularly heard at the chapel, presumably celebrated by a priest visiting from Mission San Gabriel.</p><br>
<p>After the property, reduced from 24,000 to 75 acre after the familys bank failed in 1876, was lost by the family in 1900, the chapel was said to have burned and was razed, as were three of the original brick enclosure walls. Numerous gravestones were removed and the site desecrated. A lawsuit by Walter Temple, Workmans grandson, in 1907 halted the destruction, but the cemetery languished for a decade until Temple, newly enriched with oil revenue from his Montebello ranch, bought the ranch and cemetery. From 1919 to 1921, Temple&#39;s first priority on the ranch was the renovation of El Campo Santo and the building of a mausoleum, designed by the architectural firm of Garstang and Rea, on the site of the chapel. The reopening of the cemetery took place in April 1921, at which time the remains of the last governor of Alta California, Pío Pico, and his wife, Ygnacia Alvarado, were placed in the mausoleum. It also contains the remains of other prominent pioneer families. The Workman Home And Family Cemetery are designated California Historical Landmark No. 874.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery remained in use during the occupancy of the Temple family in the 1920s and during that of the Brown family from 1940 to 1981. In recent years there have been three burials. Walter P. Temple was relocated to the site in 2002 from Mission San Gabriel, where he was buried in 1938 after the cemeterys owner, California Bank, refused the Temples request to have him buried there. Temple&#39;s son, Walter Jr., the last member of the family to have lived at the Homestead, and daughter-in-law, Nellie Didier, were buried in the cemetery in 1998. A spot is reserved for their daughter, after which the cemetery will cease being in active use.</p><br>
<h2>Public access to the Homestead Museum</h2><br>
<p>The museum, opened 1 May 1981, is owned and fully funded by the City of Industry and its management is currently contracted to Historical Resources, Inc., owned by museum director Paul R. Spitzzeri. Guided public tours of the Workman Home, La Casa Nueva, and El Campo Santo Cemetery at the Homestead Museum are available on the hour from 1 to 4 p.m. Wednesday through Sunday, excepting major holidays. The museum also maintains a full schedule of festivals, weekend living history tours, behind-the-scenes tours, workshops and other events throughout the year.</p><br>
<h2>California Historic Landmark Marker</h2><br>
<p>California Historic Landmark Marker on the site reads:</p><br>
<p>NO. 874 WORKMAN HOME AND FAMILY CEMETERY - William Workman and John Rowland organized the first wagon train of permanent eastern settlers, which arrived in Southern California on November 5, 1841. Together they owned and developed the 48,790-acre La Puente Rancho. Workman began this adobe home in 1842 and remodeled it in 1872 to resemble a manor house in his native England. He also established El Campo Santo, this region&#39;s earliest known private family cemetery, in 1850, the miniature Classic Grecian mausoleum was built in 1919 by grandson Walter P. Temple.</p><br>
<h2>Gallery of photographs from Homestead Museum</h2><br>
<h2>Local school</h2><br>
<p>Also located in the city of Industry is Workman High School named after William Workman.</p><br>
<p>The Wisconsin State Capitol, located in Madison, Wisconsin, houses both chambers of the Wisconsin Legislature along with the Wisconsin Supreme Court and the Office of the Governor. Completed in 1917, the building is the fifth to serve as the Wisconsin capitol since the first territorial legislature convened in 1836 and the third building since Wisconsin was granted statehood in 1848. The Wisconsin State Capitol is the tallest building in Madison, a distinction that has been preserved by legislation that prohibits buildings taller than the 187 feet columns surrounding the dome. The Capitol is located at the southwestern end of the Madison Isthmus in downtown Madison, bordered by streets that make up the Capitol Square.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first capitol was a prefabricated wood-frame council house without heat or water that had been sent hastily to Belmont. Legislators met there for 42 days after Belmont was designated the capital of Wisconsin Territory. The session chose Madison as the site of the capitol, and Burlington, Iowa, as the site of further legislative sessions until Madison could be ready. The council house and an associated lodging house still stand and are operated by the Wisconsin Historical Society as the First Capitol Historic Site.</p><br>
<p>The second capitol was constructed in 1837 in Madison of stone cut from Maple Bluff and oak cut locally. Located on the site of the present capitol, it was a small but typical frontier capitol that cost $60,000 to build. Growing government needs forced the state to construct a new capitol on the same site. This structure, with a similar USA Capitol-inspired dome, was designed by Madison architects August Kutzbock and Samuel Donnel and built between 1857 and 1869. During 1882, it was expanded at a cost of $900,000, with two wings to the north and south. In 1903, however, a commission began researching replacement of the structure.</p><br>
<p>On the night of February 26, 1904, a gas jet ignited a newly varnished ceiling in the third capitol building. Although the building had an advanced fire-fighting system, the nearby University of Wisconsin–Madisons reservoir, which supplied the capitol, was empty, allowing the fire to spread substantially before the switch to alternative city water supplies could be made. Madison firefighters could not handle the blaze on their own, so additional men and equipment had to be brought from Milwaukee. The effectiveness of the reinforcements was initially hampered by very cold temperatures; by the time they reached Madison, their equipment had frozen and needed to be thawed. As a result, the entire structure, except the north wing, burned to the ground. Numerous records, books, and historical artifacts were lost, including the mount of Old Abe, a Civil War mascot. However, through the efforts of university students, much of the state law library was saved. The fire occurred just after the state legislature had voted to cancel the capitols fire insurance policy.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and design</h2><br>
<p>Construction of the present capitol, the fourth building and the third in Madison, began in late 1906 and was completed in 1917 at a cost of $7.25 million. The architect was George B. Post & Sons from New York. He made the Capitol look the same on every side so that none of the businesses on the Square felt like they were on the back side. Because of financial limitations and the need for immediate office space to house state government employees, the construction of the new building was extended over several years and emphasized building one wing at a time.</p><br>
<p>The Capitol is 284 feet, 5 inches tall from the ground floor to the top of the Wisconsin statue on the dome. The Wisconsin statue on the dome was sculpted in 1920 by Daniel Chester French of New York. Its left hand holds a globe surmounted by an eagle and her right arm is outstretched to symbolize the state motto, "Forward". It wears a helmet with the state animal, the badger, on top. It is made of hollow bronze covered with gold leaf. Wisconsin is 15 feet, 5 inches tall and weighs three tons. The statue is commonly misidentified as Lady Forward or Miss Forward, which is the name of another statue on the capitol grounds.</p><br>
<p>The capitol ceiling, visible from the center of the building, features Resources of Wisconsin, a mural by Edwin Howland Blashfield. Due to the domed shape of the ceiling, the mural was painted in pieces and was assembled similarly to a jigsaw puzzle. It features a woman sitting on a throne of clouds, representing Wisconsin. Wisconsin is surrounded by other women, wrapped in a large American Flag, who are reaching for goods such as tobacco, lead, and fruits.</p><br>
<p>The capitol was constructed of 43 types of stone from six countries and eight states. The exterior stone is Bethel white granite from Vermont, making the exterior dome the largest granite dome in the world. The corridor floors, walls and columns are of marble from the states of Tennessee, Missouri, Vermont, Georgia, New York, and Maryland; granite from the states of Wisconsin and Minnesota; and limestone from the states of Minnesota and Illinois. Marble from the countries of France, Italy, Greece, Algeria and Germany, and syenite from Norway are also represented. Other Wisconsin granites are located throughout the public hallways on the ground, first, and second floors.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2001. A 1990 state law prevents any building within one mile of the capitol from being taller than the base of the columns surrounding and supporting its dome.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration</h3><br>
<p>From 1988 to 2002, the capitol underwent a renovation and restoration project costing $158.8 million. The project was performed wing by wing, the same as the original construction of the capitol. The purpose of the project was to convert the capitol into a modern working building, while restoring and preserving its original 1917 appearance. Remodeling projects of the 1960s and 70s had introduced features out of character with the architecture of the building, such as dropped ceilings, movable partitions and fluorescent light fixtures, and many original decorative stencils were painted over. The restoration project returned public spaces to their original appearance. Original decorative stencils were repaired. Stairs, which had been sealed during the 1970s, were uncovered. The exterior granite was cleaned and repaired by workers who rappelled down from the dome. The renovation plan also included integrating modern technology into the original architecture. Electrical, mechanical (such as plumbing and heating), and communications systems were upgraded; asbestos was removed, and air conditioning was added. The capitol basement floor was lowered two feet to provide additional usable office space. Legislative offices were rebuilt as two-room suites (originally legislators did not have offices in the capitol, only their desks in the Senate and Assembly chambers). Modern office furniture was designed to look like the original oak furniture.</p><br>
<h2>Sculpture program</h2><br>
<p>Architect Post planned an elaborate sculpture program for the building. Initially the commission for the statue of Wisconsin on the top of the dome was promised to Helen Farnsworth Mears but when Daniel Chester French agreed to produce the finial figure, the commission was switched to him. This work, often referred to as the "Golden Lady", consists of an allegorical figure reminiscent of Athena, dressed in Greek garb, and wearing a helmet topped by a badger, the Wisconsin state totem. In the left hand it holds a globe with an eagle perched on top. Across its chest is a large W, for Wisconsin.</p><br>
<p>Post&#39;s original concept for the building required four small domes to be placed at the base of the large one, but the plans were changed and the domes were replaced by four sculptural groups by Karl Bitter. These groups (again, in Greek clothing) symbolized Faith, Strength, Prosperity and Abundance and Knowledge.</p><br>
<p>Each of the four wings of the building is fronted by a pediment whose figures relate to the principal activities that were to occur within. Thus the east wing, housing the Supreme Court, features a pediment by Bitter entitled Law; the south has Adolph Alexander Weinmans Virtues and Traits of Character, for the wing containing the State Senate. Bitters other pediment, the west, is Agriculture, while Attilio Piccirilli&#39;s Wisdom and Learning of the World adorns the north pediment. The carving of all these sculptures is attributed to the Piccirilli Brothers.</p><br>
<h2>Fossils</h2><br>
<p>Naturally occurring fossils are found throughout the capitol:</p><br>
<p>Starfish: North wing, left grand stairs, 1st to 2nd floor, fourth step from bottom</p><br>
<p>Coral: West wing, second floor, railing overlooking central corridor, outside of Assembly chamber</p><br>
<p>Nautiloid: North wing, second floor, left of north hearing room entrance</p><br>
<p>Gastropod: West wing, left grand stairs; 1st to 2nd floor railing, above 9th step from top</p><br>
<p>Ammonoid: North wing, second floor, north hearing room</p><br>
<p>Bryozoan: South wing, second floor, left grand stairs, top step</p><br>
<p>Burrows: Northwest, second floor, wall to right room 225 NW</p><br>
<p>Brachiopods: East wing, ground floor, pillars near entrance</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>Branch Brook Park is a county park of Essex County, New Jersey. It is located in the North Ward of Newark, between the neighborhoods of Forest Hill and Roseville. A portion of the park is also located within the Township of Belleville. At 360 acre, Branch Brook Park is the largest public park in the city of Newark.</p><br>
<p>The park is noted for the largest collection of cherry blossom trees in the United States, having over 5,000 in more than eighteen different varieties collectively called Cherryblossomland, as well as a Cherry Blossom Festival each April.</p><br>
<p>The park is home to many architecturally significant structures, including bridges, buildings, gates, and sculptures. Many of these were designed by the beaux-arts architectural firm of Carrère and Hastings headed by John Merven Carrère and Thomas Hastings. The pair designed two Subway Bridges now referred to as Subway 1, East and Subway 2, West.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area had served as an Army training ground during the American Civil War. At the time, the northern portion of the area had been a marsh known as Old Blue Jay Swamp. In 1867, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, the designers of Central Park, presented their report on the site to the Board of Commissioners of the Newark Park. It recommended Concourse Hill, with its commanding views of Newark and distant Manhattan, as the best location for the park.</p><br>
<p>The park was formally created almost three decades later, in 1895, by the newly created Essex County Parks Commission, making it the nation&#39;s first county park. In 1898, a public appropriation financed the conversion of the swamp into a landscaped lake. The initial park was only 60 acre in size but grew in the 1920s through private donations from prominent Newark families, such as the Ballantines, eventually reaching the city limit with Belleville and becoming one of the largest urban parks in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The Morris Canal originally ran on the park&#39;s west side, until its old bed was turned into the Newark City Subway, providing access to the park from Downtown Newark.</p><br>
<p>The first designs of the park, based largely on romantic garden themes, were proposed in 1895 and 1898, after the Parks Commission hired several architectural firms to plan the park. In 1900, the commission hired the Olmsted Brothers firm to redesign the park. The result was the parks current naturalistic look and feel, with acres of meadows and forests, in a manner similar to their fathers earlier designs of Central Park and Prospect Park.</p><br>
<p>The famous cherry trees were the result of a 1927 gift from Caroline Bamberger Fuld, sister of department store magnate Louis Bamberger and widow of the store&#39;s vice president. The Cherry Blossom Festival attracts approximately 10,000 visitors each April. Branch Brook Park also features a lake and a pond.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the park&#39;s grounds served a tent city for recruits, as well as a landing strip for airplanes of the United States Postal Service.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood on the east side of the park, Forest Hill, is Newark&#39;s most affluent. Also on the east side of the park is the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart Basilica, one of the largest cathedrals in the United States.</p><br>
<p>It has been placed on both the New Jersey (1980) and National (1981) Registers of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>Roller rink</h3><br>
<p>In 1956, a former reservoir was converted to a skating rink to accommodate requests for year-round ice-skating facilities. In October 1957, it opened to the public, featuring dancing and roller-skating in the summer. Before December of that year, 50,000 skaters used the facility for ice-hockey and figure skating. In 1961, funds from a New Jersey Department of Transportation park sale purchase were used to fund an enlarged entrance and 230-car parking area. The structure was enclosed in 1969 for all-weather use. The present roller rink was designed circa 1992.</p><br>
<p>Its current iteration, Branch Brook Park Roller Skating Center, opened in 1996, is managed by national roller rink chain United Skates of America. The 12,000-foot roller rink building is located within the park, and has a contract with Essex County for Branch Brook. In 2013, NJ.com described the rink as "a symbol of revitalization for Newark" and "a literal savior of urban skating", exemplifying its relationship to the community, including roller derby, style skating, gospel skaters, and DJ nightlife.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration</h3><br>
<p>In 1999, Branch Brook Park began a $25 million ten-year restoration program. In 2004, the Park Avenue bridge was repaired, as were the baseball fields in the center of the park. In 2007, a plan was created to provide for more than 5,000 cherry trees in the park and renovate and rename the Welcome Center. The plan uses a $650,000 grant from the Essex County Recreation and the Open Space Trust Fund from 2006 and private donations.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, statues dedicated to sports figures Althea Gibson and Roberto Clemente were unveiled in the park. In 2013 the park was in the final phase of the restoration plan.</p><br>
<p>Branch Brook Park.JPGBranch Brook Park in Newark, New Jersey during the Cherry Blossom Festival</p><br>
<p>Ballantine Gates @ Branch Brook Park.JPGThe Ballantine gates, on the east side of the park by Forest Hill, were given to Branch Brook Park by Peter Ballantine in 1899. They are modeled on gates in Scotland.</p><br>
<p>Essex County Cherry Blossom Center jeh.jpgThe Cherry Blossom Center.</p><br>
<p>The Palace of Fine Arts is a monumental structure located in the Marina District of San Francisco, California, originally built for the 1915 Panama–Pacific International Exposition to exhibit works of art. It was constructed of plaster and wood and later replicated and replaced with a concrete and steel version we see today; the building was claimed to be fireproof. According to a metal plate at the rotunda, it was rebuilt under B.F. Modglin, local manager of MacDonald & Kahn, between 1964 and 1967. In the years 1973 and 1974, the columniated pylons were added. It is one of only 3 remaining structures from the exposition that survives.</p><br>
<p>The most prominent building of the complex, a 162 feet open rotunda, is enclosed by a lagoon on one side and adjoins a large, curved exhibition center on the other side, separated from the lagoon by colonnades. As of 2019, the exhibition center (one of San Francisco&#39;s largest single-story buildings) is used as a venue for events such as weddings or trade fairs.</p><br>
<p>Conceived to evoke a decaying ruin of ancient Rome, Early 2009 marked the completion of a renovation of the lagoons and walkways and a seismic retrofit.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Palace of Fine Arts was one of ten palaces at the heart of the Panama-Pacific Exhibition. The exhibition also included the exhibit palaces of Education, Liberal Arts, Manufactures, Varied Industries, Agriculture, Food Products, Transportation, Mines, and Metallurgy, and the Palace of Machinery. The Palace of Fine Arts was designed by Bernard Maybeck. He was tasked with creating a building that would serve as a quiet zone where exhibition attendees could pass through between visiting the crowded fairgrounds and viewing the paintings and sculptures displayed in the building behind the rotunda. (specifically Piranesis etching of the remnants of the so-called Temple of Minerva Medica in Rome), and also from Böcklins symbolism painting Isle of the Dead.</p><br>
<p>While most of the exposition was demolished when the exposition ended, the Palace was so beloved that a Palace Preservation League, founded by Phoebe Apperson Hearst, was founded while the fair was still in progress.</p><br>
<p>For a time the Palace housed a continuous art exhibit, and during the Great Depression, W.P.A. artists were commissioned to replace the decayed Robert Reid murals on the ceiling of the rotunda. From 1934 to 1942 the exhibition hall was home to eighteen lighted tennis courts. During World War II, it was requisitioned by the military for the storage of trucks and jeeps. At the end of the war, when the United Nations was created in San Francisco, limousines used by the world&#39;s statesmen came from a motor pool there. From 1947 on, the hall was put to various uses: as a city Park Department warehouse; as a telephone book distribution center; as a flag and tent storage depot; and even as temporary Fire Department headquarters.</p><br>
<p>While the Palace had been saved from demolition, its structure was not stable. Originally intended to only stand for the duration of the Exhibition, the colonnade and rotunda were not built of durable materials, and thus framed in wood and then covered with staff, a mixture of plaster and burlap-type fiber. As a result of the construction and vandalism, by the 1950s the simulated ruin was a crumbling ruin.</p><br>
<p>In 1964, the original Palace was completely demolished, with only the steel structure of the exhibit hall left standing. The buildings were then reconstructed until 1974 in permanent, light-weight, poured-in-place concrete, and steel I-beams were hoisted into place for the dome of the rotunda. All the decorations and sculptures were constructed anew. The only changes were the absence of the murals in the dome, two end pylons of the colonnade, and the original ornamentation of the exhibit hall.</p><br>
<p>In 1969, the former Exhibit Hall became home to the Exploratorium interactive museum, and, in 1970, also became the home of the 966-seat Palace of Fine Arts Theater. On October 6, 1976, the Palace of Fine Arts hosted the second presidential debate between Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter. In 2003, the City of San Francisco along with the Maybeck Foundation created a public-private partnership to restore the Palace and by 2010 work was done to restore and seismically retrofit the dome, rotunda, colonnades, and lagoon. Within January 2013, the Exploratorium closed in preparation for its permanent move to the Embarcadero.</p><br>
<p>In 1992 and 1996, the popular USA game show Wheel of Fortune taped shows at the Palace for broadcast in November.</p><br>
<p>In April 2020, during the coronavirus pandemic, plans were announced to convert the Palace of Fine Arts into a temporary shelter for 162 homeless people. The decision was reversed shortly afterward, following protests by local residents and concerns that the lodging conditions would be inadequate.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Built around a small artificial lagoon, the Palace of Fine Arts is composed of a wide, 1,100 ft pergola around a central rotunda situated by the water. The lagoon was intended to echo those found in classical settings in Europe, where the expanse of water provides a mirror surface to reflect the grand buildings and an undisturbed vista to appreciate them from a distance.</p><br>
<p>Ornamentation includes Bruno Zimm&#39;s three repeating panels around the entablature of the rotunda, representing "The Struggle for the Beautiful", symbolizing Greek culture. While Ulric Ellerhusen supplied the weeping women atop the colonnade and the sculptured frieze and allegorical figures representing Contemplation, Wonderment, and Meditation.</p><br>
<p>The underside of the Palace rotunda&#39;s dome features eight large insets, which originally contained murals by Robert Reid. Four depicted the conception and birth of Art, "its commitment to the Earth, its progress and acceptance by the human intellect," and the four "golds" of California (poppies, citrus fruits, metallic gold, and wheat).</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Palace of Fine Arts has been seen in films such as Vertigo (1958), Time After Time (1979), Bicentennial Man (1999), The Room (2003), and Twisted (2004). It also served as the backdrop for set pieces in So I Married An Axe Murderer (1993) and The Rock (1996). Additionally, the Palace has appeared in the Indian films My Name is Khan (2010) and Vaaranam Aayiram (2008).</p><br>
<p>It also appears in Season 7, Episode 2 of Mission: Impossible, and in Season 8, Episode 7 of Mannix. It was incorporated into the imagery of the Sept of Baelor in Season 1, Episode 9 of Game of Thrones.</p><br>
<p>Lucasfilm headquarters was constructed near the Palace of Fine Arts, which has been noted for its similarity to the city of Theed on Naboo as it appears in the film Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999).</p><br>
<p>In the 2000s, a smaller replica of the rotunda of the Palace of Fine Arts was built in Disneys California Adventure in Anaheim, serving as the entrance to a theater showing the film Golden Dreams about the history of California. The attraction closed on September 7, 2008, and was demolished in 2009 to make way for The Little Mermaid: Ariels Undersea Adventure dark ride. The rotunda entrance remained, but it was repainted and serves as an entrance to the ride.</p><br>
<p>Palace of Fine Arts. View of Rotunda from north-east.jpgView of the rotunda from the northeast</p><br>
<p>Palace of Fine Arts colonnade.jpgColonnade of the palace</p><br>
<p>The Appomattox Court House National Historical Park is the preserved 19th-century village named Appomattox Court House in Appomattox County, Virginia. The village was named for the presence nearby of what is now preserved as the Old Appomattox Court House. The village is the site of the Battle of Appomattox Court House, and contains the McLean House, where the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia under Robert E. Lee to Union commander Ulysses S. Grant took place on April 9, 1865, an event widely symbolic of the end of the American Civil War. The village itself began as the community of Clover Hill, which was made the county seat of Appomattox County in the 1840s. The village of Appomattox Court House entered a stage of decline after it was bypassed by a railroad in 1854. In 1930, the United States War Department was authorized to erect a monument at the site, and in 1933 the War Department&#39;s holdings there was transferred to the National Park Service. The site was greatly enlarged in 1935, and a restoration of the McLean House was planned but was delayed by World War II. In 1949, the restored McLean House was reopened to the public. Several restored buildings , as well as a number of original 19th-century structures are situated at the site.</p><br>
<h2>Antebellum history</h2><br>
<p>The antebellum village started out as "Clover Hill". The village was a stop along the Richmond–Lynchburg stagecoach road. It was also the site of organizational meetings, so when Appomattox County was established by an Act on February 8, 1845, Clover Hill village became the county seat. Appomattox County was formed from parts of Buckingham, Prince Edward, Charlotte, and Campbell counties. The jurisdiction took its name from the headwaters that emanate there, the Appomattox River; the name Appomattox was believed to originate with the Apumetec tribe of Native Americans.</p><br>
<p>From about 1842, Hugh Raine owned most of the Clover Hill area. He obtained it from his brother John Raine who defaulted on his loans. Following the establishment of Appomattox County, it became the county seat and 30 acre of the hamlet were divided into town lots. The state designated 2 acre to be taken as a location for county government buildings. The courthouse was to be built across the Stage Road from the Clover Hill Tavern&#39;s stable, with the jail behind the courthouse. In late 1845, Hugh Raine and another of his brothers sold the Clover Hill area to Samuel D. McDearmon. While the village did grow, in 1854, the decision to route a railroad through nearby Appomattox Depot led to many business leaving Appomattox Court House for the Appomattox Depot area. Around the same time, the stage route into Appomattox Court House was discontinued, and the village entered a decline.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War and further decline</h2><br>
<p>In early April 1865, during the end of the American Civil War, Confederate States Army forces commanded by General Robert E. Lee were being pursued by Union Army troops commanded by Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant. Trapped at Appomattox Court House, Lees troops attacked on April 9 in the Battle of Appomattox Court House, but were unsuccessful. That day, Lee met with Grant to discuss terms of surrender at the McLean House. After discussion, Lee signed surrender terms that day, and on April 12, the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia laid down its arms and marched away. While the war continued after the surrender of Lees army, the surrender at Appomattox Court House has become widely symbolic of the defeat of the Confederacy. The wars end did not stop the decline of the village, and when the countys records were destroyed in an 1892 courthouse fire, it was decided to move the county seat to the railroad community at Appomattox Depot, which became the town of Appomattox.</p><br>
<h2>Park development history</h2><br>
<p>In 1892, after the courthouse had burned and the McLean House had been dismantled, George B. Davis learned of the deteriorating state of the village and received permission to have metal tablets placed at the locations of important historic sites at the village. In 1930, the United States Congress passed legislation to have the United States War Department acquire a site at the village for a monument relating to the 1865 surrender, and three years later, the War Departments holdings at Appomattox Court House were transferred to the National Park Service. The sites name was changed from the "Appomattox Battlefield Site" to "Appomattox Court House National Historical Monument" in 1935 as part of legislation that authorized the park to be increased in size and for the McLean House to be reconstructed; the name change to "Appomattox Court House National Historical Park" occurred in 1954. In 1940, the park was increased to 970 acres, and a plan to rebuild both the courthouse and the McLean House was formalized. World War II delayed reconstruction at the site, but in 1949, the restored McLean House was opened to the public. On October 15, 1966, the park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The village itself has since been restored by the National Park Service, with a number of original 19th-century structures remaining, including the Clover Hill Tavern.</p><br>
<p>Besides the surviving original structures, the roughly 1,700 acres park contains reconstructed historic buildings as well, including the McLean House. Both a driving tour path and hiking trails are present in the park. Points of interest along the trails include interpretive signage, the location of Lees headquarters, and an artillery park including cannons. The parks visitor center is located in the rebuilt courthouse.</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemetery, located in Cambridge and Watertown, Massachusetts, is the first rural or garden cemetery in the United States. It is the burial site of many prominent Boston Brahmins, and is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>Dedicated in 1831 and set with classical monuments in a rolling landscaped terrain,</p><br>
<p>The 174 acre cemetery is important both for its historical aspects and for its role as an arboretum. It is Watertown&#39;s largest contiguous open space and extends into Cambridge to the east, adjacent to the Cambridge City Cemetery and Sand Banks Cemetery. It was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 2003 for its pioneering role in 19th-century cemetery development.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The land that became Mount Auburn Cemetery was originally named Stone&#39;s Farm, though locals referred to it as "Sweet Auburn" after the 1770 poem "The Deserted Village" by Oliver Goldsmith. Mount Auburn Cemetery was inspired by Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris and was itself an inspiration to cemetery designers, most notably at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn (1838), Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia, and Abney Park in London. Mount Auburn Cemetery was designed largely by Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn with assistance from Jacob Bigelow and Alexander Wadsworth.</p><br>
<p>Bigelow came up with the idea for Mount Auburn as early as 1825, though a site was not acquired until five years later. Bigelow, a medical doctor, was concerned about the unhealthiness of burials under churches as well as the possibility of running out of space. With help from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Mount Auburn Cemetery was founded on 70 acre of land authorized by the Massachusetts Legislature for use as a garden or rural cemetery. The original land cost $6,000; it was later extended to 170 acre. The main gate was built in the Egyptian Revival style and cost. The first president of the Mount Auburn Association, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, dedicated the cemetery in 1831. Storys dedication address, delivered on September 24, 1831, set the model for many more addresses in the following three decades. Garry Wills focuses on it as an important precursor to President Lincolns Gettysburg Address.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery is credited as the beginning of the American public parks and gardens movement. It set the style for other suburban American cemeteries such as Laurel Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia, 1836), Mount Hope Cemetery (Bangor, Maine, 1834), Americas first municipal rural cemetery; Green-Wood Cemetery (Brooklyn, 1838), The Green Mount Cemetery (Baltimore, Maryland, 1839) Mount Hope Cemetery (Rochester, NY, 1838), Lowell Cemetery (Lowell, Massachusetts, 1841), Allegheny Cemetery (Pittsburgh, 1844), Albany Rural Cemetery (Menands, New York, 1844), Swan Point Cemetery (Providence, Rhode Island 1846), Spring Grove Cemetery (Cincinnati, 1844), and Forest Hills Cemetery (Jamaica Plain, 1848) as well as Oakwood Cemetery in Syracuse, New York. It can be considered the link between Capability Browns English landscape gardens and Frederick Law Olmsted&#39;s Central Park in New York (1850s).</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn was established at a time when Americans had a sentimental interest in rural cemeteries. It is still well known for its tranquil atmosphere and accepting attitude toward death. Many of the more traditional monuments feature poppy flowers, symbols of blissful sleep. In the late 1830s, its first unofficial guide, Picturesque Pocket Companion and Visitors Guide Through Mt. Auburn, was published and featured descriptions of some of the more interesting monuments as well as a collection of prose and poetry about death by writers including Nathaniel Hawthorne and Willis Gaylord Clark. Because of the number of visitors, the cemeterys developers carefully regulated the grounds: they had a policy to remove "offensive and improper" monuments and only "proprietors" (i.e., plot owners) could have vehicles on the grounds and were allowed within the gates on Sundays and holidays. However, Mount Auburn differed from previously established cemeteries in that it was open to the general public and was not restricted to specific religious groups, reflecting the growing religious pluralism of Boston during the time.</p><br>
<p>In the 1840s, Mount Auburn was considered one of the most popular tourist destinations in the nation, along with Niagara Falls and Mount Vernon. A 16-year-old Emily Dickinson wrote about her visit to Mount Auburn in a letter in 1846. 60,000 people visited the cemetery in 1848 alone.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery has three notable buildings on its grounds. Washington Tower was designed by Bigelow and built in 1852–54. Named for George Washington, the 62 ft tower was built of Quincy granite and provides excellent views of the area. Bigelow Chapel was built in the 1840s and rebuilt in the 1850s, also of Quincy granite, and was renovated in 1899 under the direction of architect Willard Sears to accommodate a crematorium. Its interior was again renovated in 1924 by Allen & Collens. Through all of these alterations, stained-glass windows by the Scottish firm of Allan & Ballantyne were preserved.</p><br>
<p>In 1870 the cemetery trustees, feeling the need for additional function space, purchased land across Mount Auburn Street and constructed a reception house. This building was supplanted in the 1890s by the construction of the Story Chapel and Administration Building, adjacent to the main gate. The first reception house was designed by Nathaniel J. Bradlee, and is (like the cemetery) listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The second building was designed by Willard Sears, and is built of Potsdam sandstone in what Sears characterized as "English Perpendicular Style". The chapel in this building was redecorated in 1929 by Allen & Collens to include stained-glass by New England artist Earl E. Sanborn.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>More than 93,000 people are buried in the cemetery as of 2003. A number of historically significant people have been interred there since its inception, particularly members of the Boston Brahmins and the Boston elite associated with Harvard University, as well as a number of prominent Unitarians.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery is nondenominational and continues to make space available for new plots. The area is well known for its beautiful environs and is a favorite location for bird-watchers; over 220 species of birds have been observed at the cemetery since 1958. Guided tours of the cemetery&#39;s historic, artistic, and horticultural points of interest are available.</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburns collection of over 5,500 trees includes nearly 700 species and varieties. Thousands of very well-kept shrubs and herbaceous plants weave through the cemeterys hills, ponds, woodlands, and clearings. The cemetery contains more than 10 miles (17 km) of roads and many paths. Landscaping styles range from Victorian-era plantings to contemporary gardens, from natural woodlands to formal ornamental gardens, and from sweeping vistas through majestic trees to small enclosed spaces. Many trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants are tagged with botanic labels containing their scientific and common names.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was among those profiled in the 2005 PBS documentary A Cemetery Special.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<h2>Photo gallery</h2><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemetery Fir Avenue.jpgFir Avenue mark in cemetery</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemetery Entrance gate.jpgEgyptian revival entrance to Mount Auburn Cemetery</p><br>
<p>MtAuburnTower.JPGThe Washington Tower in the cemetery</p><br>
<p>Jacob Bigelow Grave.jpgCemetery designer, Dr. Jacob Bigelow&#39;s grave</p><br>
<p>Nathaniel Bowditch in Mount Auburn Cemetery.JPGNathaniel Bowditch</p><br>
<p>Mary Baker Eddy monument in Mt. Auburn Cemetery (00316p)2.jpgMary Baker Eddy Memorial</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemeter - Misc View.JPGMount Auburn Cemetery</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemeter - Hunnewell.JPGHunnewell family obelisk</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Waterhouse grave.jpgDr. Benjamin Waterhouse&#39;s grave</p><br>
<p>CharlesSumnerGrave.jpgCharles Sumner&#39;s grave</p><br>
<p>Pitman family marker, Mount Auburn Cemetery (4402353191).jpgPitman family marker</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemetery - Martin Milmore sphinx.jpgSphinx monument by Martin Milmore, 1872</p><br>
<p>Fanny Fern Gravestone in Mount Auburn Cemetery.jpgFanny Fern&#39;s Grave</p><br>
<p>Grave Simmons.jpgGrave of John Simmons</p><br>
<p>Weeping_Japanese_Pagoda_Tree_in_Mount_Auburn_Cemetery,_Cambridge-Watertown,_MA_-_8-1-2015.jpgWeeping Japanese pagoda tree</p><br>
<p>Weeping_European_Beech_Tree_in_Mount_Auburn_Cemetery,_Cambridge-Watertown,_MA_-_8-1-2015.jpgWeeping European beech tree</p><br>
<p>Mt. Auburn Cemetery 9.jpgT. Jefferson Lillie tombstone</p><br>
<p>Poplar Forest is a plantation and retreat home in Forest, Virginia, United States, that belonged to Thomas Jefferson, Founding Father and third USA president. Jefferson inherited the property in 1773 and began designing and working on his retreat home in 1806. While Jefferson is the most famous individual associated with the property, it had several owners before being purchased for restoration, preservation, and exhibition in 1984.</p><br>
<p>Poplar Forest was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1971 and is now operated as a historic house museum by the nonprofit Corporation for Jeffersons Poplar Forest. The corporation is also responsible for the ongoing archaeological study and restoration work at the property. The Corporation celebrated the completed restoration of Jeffersons villa retreat in April 2023.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The land upon which Poplar Forest was built shows archaeological evidence of having been populated by native peoples from the Paleo-Indian through Late Woodland periods. Similar to Stith, Wayles did not live on the property due to his career as an attorney and businessman in Charles City County, Virginia.</p><br>
<p>Wayles daughter Martha Wayles Skelton was married to Thomas Jefferson, and the couple inherited the full 4,819 acres when Wayles died in 1773. The Jeffersons did not immediately continue developing Poplar Forest, nor were they frequent visitors to the property – their focus was on developing Monticello, Thomass political and legal career, and raising their family. Martha Jefferson died in 1782, and Thomas spent time away from Virginia in public service following her death, serving as Minister to France (1785–1789), Secretary of State (1790–1793), Vice President (1797–1801), and President (1801–1809).</p><br>
<p>Even in Jefferson&#39;s absence, the plantation was generating revenue from slave labor under the watch of a general steward and a team of overseers; the slave labor force at Poplar Forest produced annual tobacco and wheat crops after 1790.</p><br>
<p>Jefferson conducted annual visits to Poplar Forest beginning in 1810 and ending in 1823; He frequently brought his granddaughters Ellen and Cornelia Jefferson Randolph to the house after 1816, and always traveled to Poplar Forest with a small cadre of enslaved men and women who were based at Monticello. His visits ranged from a few days to weeklong stays. Jefferson maintained sole ownership of the property and the slaves until 1790, when he gave 1,000 acres and six slave families to his daughter Martha and her husband Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. Randolph would later divide and sell the rest of Jeffersons landholdings; he also sold many of Jeffersons slaves to repay debts.</p><br>
<p>Near the end of his life, Jefferson sought to find permanent residents for the property, and his grandson Francis W. Eppes and wife Mary Elizabeth moved to Poplar Forest shortly after their 1823 marriage. Jefferson died in 1826 having made his last visit to Poplar Forest in 1823. The Eppeses sold Poplar Forest in November 1828 to William Cobbs; Cobbs assigned the task of managing the property to his son-in-law Edward Hutter in 1840 following his marriage to Cobbs daughter Emma. The period from 1745 to 1840, in which Poplar Forest was sold many times in quick succession many enslaved men, women, and children were separated from their families as the owners settled their predecessors debts. The Cobbs–Hutter family maintained ownership of Poplar Forest into the twentieth century. The Hutter&#39;s son Christian purchased the property in the late nineteenth century and used it as a summer home and working farm into the 1940s employing labor from both black and white hired farmhands and tenant farmers.</p><br>
<p>Christian Hutter sold the property to James Watts’ family in 1946; the Watts family operated Poplar Forest as a dairy farm and worked with Phelps Barnum and W. Stuart Thompson to restore the house to the way it appeared during Jefferson&#39;s time. They also did significant landscape development, and sold a majority of the remaining land to a developer who constructed a nine-hole golf course and a lake along the eastern and southern part of the property.</p><br>
<p>Dr. James Johnson purchased the house and 50 acres of land from the Watts family in 1980 and then the nonprofit Corporation for Jeffersons Poplar Forest purchased the acreage and the remaining physical structures on the property in 1984. The organization has worked in recent years to reacquire land within the original plantation boundaries, and as of 2008 owned 617 acres of the original property. The Corporation celebrated the completed restoration of Jeffersons villa retreat in April 2023.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural design</h2><br>
<p>When construction began at Poplar Forest in 1806, Jefferson was President of the United States. He supervised the construction from Washington, DC. Thomas Jefferson was a self-taught architect known for his work at Monticello and the Virginia State Capitol; he frequently borrowed designs from classical sources, and was attracted to Palladio&#39;s classical architecture in the Veneto as well as designs from 16th century France. Jefferson designed Poplar Forest as his personal retreat house and selected the property because of its distance from his public life.</p><br>
<p>The octagonal house may have been the first of its kind to have been built in the United States. The house at Poplar Forest is made of brick and has an octagonal floor plan; it consists of a central square space and three sides made of elongated octagon rooms. There is an entry hall on the one side of the house, which is two smaller rooms divided by a short entry hall. There is a skylight in the central dining room. The dining room dimensions are 20’ x 20’ x 20’, which makes it a perfect cube. Jefferson also added pedimented porticoes on low arcades that were attached to both the northern and southern facades as well as the east and west stairwells. Scholars agree that the retreat house at Poplar Forest is an excellent example of octagonal symmetry; Jefferson&#39;s design for the building reflects a consistent geometric approach likely made possible by his well-known proficiency in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and Newtonian calculus.</p><br>
<h2>Post-Jeffersonian modifications and preservation</h2><br>
<p>Under different owners, the main house underwent many alterations, and the plantations acreage was incrementally reduced to 50 acres (20 ha) at the time of acquisition by the Corporation for Jeffersons Poplar Forest.</p><br>
<p>The Corporation for Jefferson&#39;s Poplar Forest used early 19th-century building materials including heavy timber-frame construction, hemp sash cord, and iron hardware from Colonial Williamsburg. They also used 19th-century building techniques, such as column rendering and burning limestone to produce traditional lime mortar and plaster, for their restoration work.</p><br>
<h2>Slavery</h2><br>
<p>Enslaved men, women, and children were present on the property from 1766 through 1865, when slavery was formally abolished in the United States. Present-day knowledge of the slave populations and their contributions to Poplar Forest is based on both archaeological and archival evidence. John Wayles used slave labor to originally develop roadwork on the property, and when Thomas and Martha Jefferson inherited the land that included Poplar Forest from Wayles, they also inherited 135 enslaved men, women, and children as well as other tracts of land in Amherst, Cumberland, Charles City, Goochland, and Powhatan counties. Because Wayles chose to split his estate among several heirs, enslaved families were separated in order for his heirs to pay his debts.</p><br>
<p>As Jefferson turned more attention to Poplar Forest, he brought enslaved people from Monticello, Elk Hill, Indian Camp, and Judiths Creek, thus increasing the enslaved population at Poplar Forest. Jefferson kept consistent records of the enslaved people living at Poplar Forest; these records show that the enslaved population fluctuated between as few as 28 and as many as 95 enslaved individuals were working at Poplar Forest between the years 1774 and 1819. As an active participant in the slave trade, Jefferson sold and purchased enslaved people throughout the time he owned Poplar Forest, including the sale of 40 enslaved people from his various properties in Bedford County, Virginia in the 1790s. The Eppeses inherited the house, about 1,075 acres of land, and several enslaved men and women after Jeffersons death in 1826. The Cobbs and Hutter families also used slave labor on the property through emancipation and maintained some formerly enslaved people as hired workers following.</p><br>
<h3>Plantation and slave economics</h3><br>
<p>Beginning in 1790, the enslaved community at Poplar Forest grew tobacco and livestock for profit, and later grew wheat. Records from Edward Hutters tenure at Poplar Forest show that enslaved individuals were regularly tasked with tilling fields and digging ditches in addition to their work growing and harvesting plants to be sold at market. Enslaved people worked six days each week, and were also responsible for constructing and maintaining their housing structures. Scholars have determined that the enslaved community at Poplar Forest devised a commerce system amongst themselves; slaves were allowed a small plot of land on which to grow food and produce goods that could be traded or sold to fellow enslaved people as well as the owners families and the outside market. Archaeologists at Poplar Forest have uncovered clothing accessories such as buttons, glass beads, gilt chains, aiglet/lace tips, and fancy buckles that were likely used as currency amongst slaves at Poplar Forest and the surrounding plantations.</p><br>
<p>Documents from the 19th century show that the transition from tobacco-based to mixed-crop plantation agriculture left Poplar Forest with an abundance of laborers; William Cobbs, in particular, is known to have hired out slaves from the plantation to external projects. Other enslaved individuals (including two women named Lucy and Matilda) are known to have had access to money during this time so that they could buy items on behalf of the Cobbs/Hutter families. Edward Hutter regularly leased slaves from Poplar Forest to businesses and planters in Bedford County.</p><br>
<h3>Family networks</h3><br>
<p>Records show that by the 1790s, there were seven different enslaved families represented at Poplar Forest. Jefferson encouraged common-law unions amongst the enslaved community, and recorded the birth dates of each enslaved child born on the property. He also rewarded women who married a fellow slave from Poplar Forest with a pot; archaeologists have found remnants of these gifts in archaeological studies of the property. Jefferson kept records of family connections – surviving records have allowed scholars to conclude that multiple generations of single families were enslaved at Poplar Forest and had relatives at other plantations in Virginia. William and Marian Cobbs inherited an enslaved family that included Mary and her daughters Lucy and Matilda (who are recorded to have worked as house slaves) as well as other siblings and extended family members.</p><br>
<h3>Known enslaved people</h3><br>
<p>Hannah was not born at Poplar Forest, but served there from the time she was a teenager until ca.1821. She married and had a family with a fellow slave, was literate, and worked for a time as Jefferson&#39;s housekeeper.</p><br>
<p>James (Jame) Hubbard was purchased by Jefferson when he was 30 and went on to oversee field laborers at Poplar Forest. He fathered six children with a fellow slave named Cate and fostered several others, and worked as a hogkeeper when he was older. Scholars are also able to trace his family members and their roles at Poplar Forest, which included Nace, Hannah, Nancy, Joan, James, and Phill.</p><br>
<p>Phill was born at Poplar Forest to James Hubbard and his wife Cate. Phill briefly worked at Monticello before returning to Poplar Forest, where he married Hanah and had a son. He died at age 33, reportedly of poisoning.</p><br>
<p>William (Billy) was born at Poplar Forest and violently rebelled against slavery by attacking an overseer on more than one occasion. Jefferson sent him and three others to Louisiana, where William attempted to run away, but was caught and sold.</p><br>
<p>John Hemmings never lived at Poplar Forest, but documentary records show that he was responsible for much of the interior woodwork in the retreat house at Poplar Forest.</p><br>
<p>Lydia Johnson lived at Poplar Forest when Edward Hutter owned the property. She named one of her children Ida Reeder, after Hutter&#39;s niece; expense records show that he purchased a dress for her as a gift. Lydia continued to work for the family after Emancipation until she died in 1919.</p><br>
<p>Will appears in a ledger from 1772 noting that he purchased rum, buttons, thread, and cloth.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>There have been several archaeological digs at Poplar Forest since the archaeology program began in 1989. Archaeology has revealed several sites associated with the enslaved population at Poplar Forest as well as uncovered valuable information about Jefferson&#39;s original landscape surrounding his retreat. In Fall of 2022, Poplar Forest celebrated the completion of landscape restoration to the north side of the retreat villa.</p><br>
<p>More recent excavations focused on an area believed to have held paper mulberry trees; Jefferson planted two rows in order to help create naturalistic wings to complement the Palladian style of his retreat house. Archaeologists at Poplar Forest found stains in the ground indicating areas in which trees were previously planted, and their goal is to analyze the levels of charcoal and pollen to determine which areas were most likely the original location(s) for the paper mulberry trees. Other ongoing and future excavation plans include the area surrounding an antebellum slave cabin as well as Jefferson&#39;s ornamental plant nursery.</p><br>
<h3>Slave sites</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations of Poplar Forest have yielded evidence suggesting that maps of Poplar Forest created in Jefferson&#39;s time were incomplete and did not illustrate the extent to which enslaved people were present.</p><br>
<h4>Old plantation/North Hill site</h4><br>
<p>The Old Plantation/North Hill is believed to have been established in the 1770s/1780s and was the site of the oldest slave farm structures at Poplar Forest dating from 1764. Maps suggest that the original structures included an overseer&#39;s house, large barn, and slave housing built over the course of 40 years. Scholars also refer to this area as the Old Quarter located to the south and west of the main house.</p><br>
<h4>Quarter site</h4><br>
<p>The Quarter site, also called the Wingo quarter farm, dates from 1790 to 1812 at Poplar Forest and was operational when Jefferson owned Poplar Forest; he gave the land on which it was located to Martha and Thomas Mann Randolph as a wedding present. Jefferson&#39;s surviving notes tell us that three carpenters were able to construct a slave cabin in three days and that the slaves most often lived next to their field or shop work sites. Documentary evidence suggests that the slave housing structures at Poplar Forest were made of logs and that several houses had two rooms that each measured 12.5 x 15 feet; this is corroborated by archaeological evidence suggesting that the slave structures contained root cellars designed by the occupants, which were used to store clothing, tools, and iron hardware. Archaeologists used soil stains to discover storage pits, burned tree roots, and postholes; this analysis also yielded fragments of glass, ceramics, and iron which were discovered to have been parts of plates, bottles, and cooking pots.</p><br>
<p>One other structure discovered is believed to have functioned as a smokehouse as well as a residence, while a third is believed to have been built later than the other two, and used primarily as housing. Soil analysis also suggests that there were fences in the slave quarters.</p><br>
<p>Excavations at this site also yielded a number of objects related to slave life at Poplar Forest. Archaeologists discovered iron saw files, gimlets, wedges, croze irons, and a hinge from a folding ruler; it is likely that these objects are from tools used by slaves either in their work assignments or in their personal space. Scissors, straight pins, and thimbles found at the site suggest that women sewed for both work and for their families. The excavations uncovered stoneware and earthenware that scholars believe to have been used to prepare food. Enslaved men and women at Poplar Forest ate fruits and vegetables as well as beef, pork, venison, opossum, rabbit, chicken, turkey, and fish, and possibly had access to firearms with which to hunt animals.</p><br>
<h4>Site A</h4><br>
<p>This is the newest of the three sites; current scholarship indicates that it was built in the 1830s and was operational until emancipation. Scholars believe that the site was home to a slave cabin likely occupied between 1840 and 1860. Archaeologists have uncovered a 3 ft. pit that would have been located underneath the floor of the cabin, postholes, and remnants of a shone chimney. The excavation at Site A has yielded buttons, straight pins, needles, thimbles, and the bone cap of a needle case; this suggests that this site may have been the home of a seamstress.</p><br>
<p>In addition, 191 beads have been recovered, with only one made of bone, and the rest from glass. 159 were seed beads, most predominantly found in aqua, turquoise, red and white cased, and white. Though five single beads in dark blue, light blue, black, dark green, and purple were also uncovered, as well as two light green, and four colorless seed beads. The residual thirty one beads were crafted from different glass bead making methods, and were found in three colors. Twenty six were wound glass in black, three were faceted, two black and one purple, and two drawn glass in white.</p><br>
<p>A Spanish half real had also been excavated, pierced at the top. Beginning in 1965, Spanish reales were standard currency in Virginia, and were considered legal tender from 1793 to 1857 in the United States as a whole. Though, considering the recovered half zeal was found altered, it suggests that the zeal was worn as an adornment object. Historically, both pierced and unpiered coins were worn for protection and security by enslaved African Americans.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>The Corporation for Thomas Jeffersons Poplar Forest has worked to restore Jeffersons plantation and retreat home since 1984, when the tax-exempt non-profit organization purchased 50 acres of land and the original buildings with the goal of preserving the estate for public educational benefit. The corporation operates Poplar Forest as a historic house museum with the mission to preserve, inspire, and tell the emerging story of Thomas Jefferson&#39;s Poplar Forest.</p><br>
<p>Poplar Forest first welcomed visitors in 1986, and now conducts guided tours thematically dedicated to the main retreat house and the enslaved community in addition to its ongoing restoration and archaeological work. The property is a National Historic Landmark and designated a Virginia History Trails site as part of Virginia&#39;s 2019 Commemoration.</p><br>
<p>The Daniels & Fisher Tower is a distinctive historic landmark located in Denver, Colorado.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>Built as part of the Daniels & Fisher department store in 1910, it was the tallest building between the Mississippi River and the state of California at the time of construction, at a height of 325 feet (99 m). The building was designed by the architect Frederick Sterner and modeled after The Campanile (St. Mark&#39;s Bell Tower) at the Piazza San Marco in Venice, Italy. The 20-floor clock tower has clock faces on all four sides. May Company purchased Daniels & Fisher in 1958, and the store vacated the tower. When the store was demolished (ca. 1971), the tower was saved and renovated into residential and office space in 1981. A 2½ ton bell occupies the top two floors of the building, above the observation deck.</p><br>
<p>The tower is located within Denver&#39;s Skyline Park and the basement level has been home to the Clocktower Cabaret entertainment venue since 2006.</p><br>
<p>The tower was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 3, 1969.</p><br>
<p>Daniels & Fisher Tower doorway arch.jpgEntrance from 16th street</p><br>
<p>D&F_Tower.JPGTower from 17th Street</p><br>
<p>Daniels & Fisher Tower, Denver, CO, 29 September, 2006.JPGTower viewed from 16th Street, looking north</p><br>
<p>Dh130414-144645.jpgOriginal clock works</p><br>
<p>Daniels & Fisher Tower in Denver Downtown.jpgView of Daniels & Fisher Tower from the street</p><br>
<p>Dh130414-150853.jpgInterior view of southeast clock face</p><br>
<p>Dh130414-152358.jpgBell and striker</p><br>
<p>Dh130414-155425.jpgSconces on first floor</p><br>
<p>Dh130414-171049.jpgView from north-west (16th Street)</p><br>
<p>A ground view of the D&F Tower in Denver.jpgA ground view of the tower</p><br>
<p>Daniels & Fisher Tower in Denver.jpgDaniels & Fisher Tower in Denver</p><br>
<p>Daniels & Fisher Tower view from Curtis & 15th Street.jpgDaniels & Fisher Tower view from Curtis & 15th Street</p><br>
<p>The Aloha Tower is a retired lighthouse that is considered one of the landmarks of the state of Hawaii in the United States. Opened on September 11, 1926, at a cost of $160,000 , the Aloha Tower is located at Pier 9 of Honolulu Harbor. It has been, and continues to be, a guiding beacon welcoming vessels to the City and County of Honolulu. Just as the Statue of Liberty greeted hundreds of thousands of immigrants each year to New York City, the Aloha Tower greeted hundreds of thousands of immigrants to Honolulu. At 10 stories and 184 feet  of height topped with 40 feet  of flag mast, for four decades the Aloha Tower was the tallest structure in Hawaii. It was built in the Hawaiian Gothic architectural style.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Attack on Pearl Harbor</h3><br>
<p>When the attack on Pearl Harbor came on December 7, 1941, Coast Guardsmen from the were ordered to take up defensive positions around Aloha Tower and protect it from being occupied. The Aloha Tower was painted in camouflage to disappear at night.</p><br>
<h3>Redevelopment</h3><br>
<p>In 1981, the Governor of Hawaii and the Hawaii State Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism established the Aloha Tower Development Corporation. The public corporation was charged with developing the land around the Aloha Tower to benefit the state&#39;s commercial trade industry based at Honolulu Harbor while at the same time providing the residents of Hawaii with ample access to the downtown waterfront. The entire Aloha Tower Complex, as defined by the public corporation, was identified as Piers 5 and 6, Piers 8 through 23, and portions of Nimitz Highway and Iwilei.</p><br>
<h3>Museum marketplace</h3><br>
<p>In 1982, the Hawaii Maritime Center was opened near the Aloha Tower in an old royal pier to present the history of Honolulu Harbor and the relative industries it served. In 2002, the Hawaii Maritime Center became an incorporated institution of the Bishop Museum. The center was closed to the public on May 1, 2009 and was later converted into a Hawaii Pacific University dormitory in 2015.</p><br>
<p>Docked at the royal pier is the Falls of Clyde, a historic shipping vessel.</p><br>
<h2>Recent developments</h2><br>
<p>Aloha Towers adjacent Nimitz Highway has been thrown around with various proposals of projects to make it more efficient. In addition to this, proposals are being thrown around regarding redevelopment surrounding Aloha Tower.</p><br>
<h3>Highway tunnel proposal</h3><br>
<p>In 2004, a controversial proposal was made to construct an underground highway tunnel beneath the complex.</p><br>
<h3>Future Skyline service</h3><br>
<p>Proposals involving introducing rail transit near the Aloha Tower have been thrown around for years. Initially, this included the re-establishment of streetcars, but was changed to a Light Metro system once the Skyline Project was announced. This will result in the (Downtown) Skyline station being built near the Aloha Tower. As of 2024, this station is under construction and is expected to open in 2031.</p><br>
<h3>Proposed redevelopment of adjacent areas</h3><br>
<p>As part of the adjacent Skyline Station&#39;s transit oriented development plan, the parking lot fronting the Aloha Tower and the adjacent decommissioned Hawaiian Electric power plant, would be demolished for various mixed-use developments. In addition to this, the surrounding commercial offices would be converted into residential mixed-use condos. In fact, the first conversion: the Modea condo is already expected to be completed in 2025.</p><br>
<h3>Hawaii Pacific University</h3><br>
<p>in 2015, the Hawaii Pacific University has taken over the former Aloha Tower Marketplace and converted the facility into a expansion of its campus, including 78 student housing units for 278 students.</p><br>
<h3>Security concerns following September 11, 2001 attacks</h3><br>
<p>In consideration of heightened security measures after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, public access to the observation deck was restricted, but has since been reopened.</p><br>
<h2>Concerts</h2><br>
<p>American hard rock band Skid Row performed in concert at Aloha Tower Stage on October 10, 1992.</p><br>
<p>Experimental Breeder Reactor I  is a decommissioned research reactor and USA National Historic Landmark located in the desert about 18 mi southeast of Arco, Idaho. It was the worlds first breeder reactor. At 1:50 p.m. on December 20, 1951, it became one of the worlds first electricity-generating nuclear power plants when it produced sufficient electricity to illuminate four 200-watt light bulbs. EBR-I soon generated sufficient electricity to power its building, and the town of Arco and continued to be used for experimental research until it was decommissioned in 1964. The museum is open for visitors from late May until early September.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>EBR-Is construction started in late 1949. The reactor was designed and built by a team led by Walter Zinn at the Idaho site of the Argonne National Laboratory, known as Argonne-West (since 2005 part of Idaho National Laboratory). In its early stages, the reactor plant was referred to as Chicago Pile 4 (CP-4) and Zinns Infernal Pile. Installation of the reactor at EBR-I took place in early 1951 (the first reactor in Idaho) and it began power operation on August 24, 1951. On December 20 of that year, EBR-I produced electricity for its first time. The following day, the reactor produced enough power to light the whole building. The EBR-I produced 200 kW of electricity out of 1.4 MW of heat generated by the reactor.</p><br>
<p>The production of electricity at EBR-I is the first time that a reactor created in-house available electricity, and it is sometimes misreferred to as the first time that a nuclear reactor has ever created electricity. However, the world&#39;s first electricity produced by a nuclear reactor occurred during an experiment 3 years earlier in September 1948 at the X-10 Graphite Reactor at the Oak Ridge National Lab in Tennessee. Later in 1955, another nuclear milestone was reached when an experimental boiling water reactor plant called BORAX-III (also designed, built, and operated by Argonne National Laboratory) was connected to external loads, powering the nearby city of Arco, Idaho, the first time a city had been powered solely by nuclear power.</p><br>
<p>The design purpose of EBR-I was not to produce electricity but instead to validate nuclear physics theory that suggested that a breeder reactor should be possible. In 1953, experiments revealed the reactor was producing additional fuel during fission, thus confirming the hypothesis. On November 29, 1955, the reactor at EBR-I suffered a partial meltdown during a coolant flow test. The flow test was trying to determine the cause of unexpected reactor responses to changes in coolant flow. It was subsequently repaired for further experiments, which determined that thermal expansion of the fuel rods and the thick plates supporting the fuel rods was the cause of the unexpected reactor response.</p><br>
<p>Besides being one of the worlds first to generate plant electricity from atomic energy, EBR-I was also the worlds first breeder reactor and the first to use plutonium fuel to generate electricity (see also the Clementine nuclear reactor). EBR-Is initial purpose was to prove Enrico Fermis fuel breeding principle, a principle that a nuclear reactor can produce more fuel atoms than it consumes. EBR-I proved this principle.</p><br>
<h3>Design</h3><br>
<p>EBR-I used uranium metal fuel and NaK primary coolant. It was in this identical to the initial configuration of the later Dounreay Fast Reactor which first went critical in 1959.</p><br>
<p>The primary liquid metal coolant flows by gravity from the supply tank through the reactor core, where it absorbs heat. Then, the coolant flows to heat the exchanger, where it gives up this heat to the secondary coolant, another liquid metal. The primary coolant is returned to the supply tank by an electromagnetic pump. The secondary coolant is pumped to the boiler, where it gives up its heat to water, generating steam. This steam passes to the turbine, which is how electricity is produced. This steam then condenses and returned to the boiler by a water pump.</p><br>
<h3>Decommission and legacy</h3><br>
<p>EBR-I was deactivated by Argonne in 1964 and replaced with a new reactor, Experimental Breeder Reactor II.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965 with its dedication ceremony held on August 25, 1966, led by President Lyndon Johnson and Glenn T. Seaborg. It was also declared an IEEE Milestone in 2004.</p><br>
<p>Ebri_plaques.jpgPlaques at the EBR-I site</p><br>
<p>Ebr1core.pngAssembly of the EBR-1 core in 1951</p><br>
<p>First four nuclear lit bulbs.jpegThe first production of usable nuclear electricity occurred on December 20, 1951, when four light bulbs were lit with electricity generated from the EBR-I reactor.</p><br>
<p>Ebr-1.zdv.jpgThe reactor is in the building at center; the two structures lower left are reactors from the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Project.</p><br>
<p>EBR-1 2001.jpgView of EBR-I, from the parking lot</p><br>
<p>The Maryland State House is located in Annapolis, Maryland. It is the oldest USA state capitol in continuous legislative use, dating to 1772, and houses the Maryland General Assembly, plus the offices of the Governor and Lieutenant Governor. In 1783 and 1784 it served as the capitol building of the United States Congress of the Confederation, and is where Ratification Day, the formal end of the American Revolutionary War, occurred.</p><br>
<p>The capitol has the distinction of being topped by the largest wooden dome in the United States constructed without nails. The current building, which was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960, is the third statehouse on its site. The building is administered by the State House Trust, established in 1969.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and history</h2><br>
<p>Construction began in 1772, but was not completed until 1797</p><br>
<p>The building was surrounded by a low brick wall in 1818 to prevent cattle incursions. This was replaced by an iron fence with a granite base in 1836. The dome of the statehouse is depicted on the Maryland state quarter.</p><br>
<p>An annex to the State House was constructed between 1902 and 1906 under the supervision of Baltimore architects Baldwin & Pennington; the new annex replaced earlier 19th-century annexes. The current state House of Delegates and Senate chambers are part of the annex, which is clad in black and gold Italian marble. The annex includes the Grand Staircase from the first to the second floors; above the staircase is the painting Washington Resigning His Commission by Edwin White, executed in 1858. In 2017, two additional paintings, both from the collection of the Enoch Pratt Free Library, were hung above the staircase. These additions were a portrait of Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore by Allan Ramsay and a portrait of Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore by Johann Ludwig Tietz.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-1990s, the cypress dome underwent a structural renovation and repainting. However, the latex paint that was used failed to bond due to preceding layers, causing it to flake. In 2011, the old paint was removed and replaced with white oil-based paint.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds</h2><br>
<p>Adjacent to the State House is Lawyers Mall, an open space which was designated in 1973 after the demolition of the Court of Appeals building, which had sat at the location since 1906. Statues of Baltimore native Thurgood Marshall, the first black USA Supreme Court justice, as well as Donald Gaines Murray, the first African-American to enter the University of Maryland School of Law since 1890, and a bench with statues of two anonymous children symbolizing the victory of Marshall&#39;s litigation in Brown v. Board of Education, all sit on Lawyers Mall. The space is the focal point of First Amendment activities on capitol grounds.</p><br>
<p>Until 2017, there was a statue of Roger B. Taney, Chief Justice of the United States, on the lawn of the State House. The statue was erected in 1872. The statue of Taney, a Marylander, was controversial because of Taneys support for slavery and his authorship of the USA Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), which upheld the denial of citizenship to African Americans. As a result, a movement in support of removing the statue emerged. At first, the State House Trust—made up of the governor, the speaker of the state house, the president of the state senate, and the chair of the Maryland Historical Trust Board of Trustees—responded by adding interpretive plaques "explaining the controversy over his divisive opinion and its place in the evolution of the nations stance toward slavery." The Trust also added a statue of Marshall on Lawyers Mall, and agreed in 2016 to place statues of abolitionists Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass in the State House. In the wake of the Charlottesville car attack in 2017, House Speaker Michael E. Busch called for the removal of the Taney statue, as did Governor Larry Hogan a day later. It was removed just after midnight on August 18, 2017.</p><br>
<h2>Rotunda</h2><br>
<p>The rotunda is the primary home of the Maryland Federalist, a 1987 replica of the original Federalist, a tiny ship built by Baltimore merchants in 1788 to celebrate Maryland&#39;s ratification of the USA Constitution. Large Corinthian columns support the arches bracing the large dome above. A balustrade lines the second floor balcony.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 2012, the original handwritten text of George Washington&#39;s resignation letter was on display in the rotunda. It was again put on display in March 2020 alongside the original Star-Spangled Banner by Francis Scott Key on loan from the Maryland Center for History and Culture.</p><br>
<h2>Chambers</h2><br>
<h3>Old Senate Chamber</h3><br>
<p>To the right of the entrance is the old Senate Chamber. Chairs and desks were added to the room in the exact number (16) as originally furbished. The desk for the president is an original piece made by John Shaw in 1797. Above the fireplace is the painting Washington, Lafayette & Tilghman at Yorktown by Charles Willson Peale; the work was commissioned by the Maryland Legislature in 1783 and added to the State House collection the following year. The painting depicts General George Washington, Lafayette and Washington&#39;s aide-de-camp Tench Tilghman.</p><br>
<p>It was in the Old Senate Chamber that Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army on December 23, 1783. A bronze statue of Washington stands in the room.</p><br>
<p>On February 2, 1781, Governor Thomas Sim Lee signed and sealed the "act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the Articles of Confederation." The decision established the requisite unanimous consent of all thirteen states for the formation of a Perpetual Union.</p><br>
<p>On September 11, 1786, the Annapolis Convention, an interstate convention to discuss ways to facilitate commerce between the states and the establishment standard rules and regulations, convened here. The convention laid the groundwork for the 1787 Constitutional Convention.</p><br>
<p>The chamber had extensive investigation beginning in 2007 to solve water leakage problems. As a result of this study, restorers have determined that previous restoration attempts in 1905 and 1940 did not accurately recreate many elements of the room. A report of their findings was issued in January 2010. The restoration work was completed in 2015 and the chamber reopened to the public.</p><br>
<h3>Working Senate Chamber</h3><br>
<p>The Senate chamber is located in a wing added to the original structure between 1902 and 1905. The room is illuminated by a Tiffany-style skylight above. Red carpet emblazoned with the state seal covers the entire floor. Large Ionic columns line the walls and support the viewing gallery. The marble along the walls and the columns are flecked with rust and black, Maryland&#39;s official colors.</p><br>
<p>Two famous Marylanders are featured in statues flanking the podium: John Hanson, the first president by the Articles of Confederation, and Charles Carroll, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Four portraits of Declaration of Independence signatories for Maryland hang on the walls: William Paca, Thomas Stone, Samuel Chase, and Charles Carroll. There are also portraits of Edwin Warfield and John Walter Smith.</p><br>
<h3>Working House Chamber</h3><br>
<p>The House of Delegates chamber is also in the new wing to the building. The carpet is navy blue and designed with a diamond and olive sheaths. The same rust and black marble lines the chamber and forms the Ionic columns along the walls. A spectators&#39; gallery is above the rostrum. The speaker sits in front of a broken marble pediment supporting a clock. Portraits of former Speakers of the House hang on the walls.</p><br>
<h3>Governor&#39;s Reception Room</h3><br>
<p>The Governors Reception Room is on the second floor. The room is mainly ceremonial and used for bill signings. Portraits of former governors hang on the walls. Portraits of Henrietta Maria and Queen Anne hang nearby. The room was originally used as the Council Chamber for Marylands executive council, which was abolished in state constitutional reforms in 1838; it became known as the Governor&#39;s Reception Room in the 1860s.</p><br>
<h3>State House Caucus Room</h3><br>
<p>What is now known as the State House Caucus Room was originally divided into two rooms housing the records of the Land Office and the General Court (which later became Court of Appeals of Maryland). After the Old House of Delegates Chamber was expanded in 1858, the room was divided between the private office of the speaker of the House of Delegates (rear half) and a cloakroom (front half). In 1905–06, the room was likely renovated, and became known as the Flag Room, which housed various Civil War battle flags and ceremonial weapons. The room was later used by the Department of Legislative Reference and became known as the "Bill Room" by the 1940s. From the early 1980s until 2008, the room was used as the Maryland State House Visitor Center. In 2011, the bill became the State House Caucus Room, and is now used for meetings.</p><br>
<p>The Caucus Room houses most of the 48-piece silver service from the armored cruiser USS Maryland, which was decommissioned in 1947. The pieces in the set show 167 scenes from Maryland history, with each piece focusing on one of Maryland&#39;s 23 counties and Baltimore. The silver was transferred from the Maryland Historical Society to the State House in 1962. In 1992, four pieces from the service were given to the submarine USS Maryland. In addition to the silver, the Caucus Room contains a 19th-century bust of Reverdy Johnson.</p><br>
<p>Paintings in the Caucus Room include both portraits and landscapes. Portraits in the room are originals depicting Oden Bowie (by Katherine Walton), Frank Brown (by Louis P. Dieterich), Leonard Calvert (attributed to Jacob van Oost or Jacob van Oost the Younger), Elihu Emory Jackson (by Ida Foster), Robert M. McLane (by George Peter Alexander Healy), Thomas Swann (by Florence Mackubin), Francis Thomas (by Franklin Barber Clark), William Pinkney Whyte (by David Bendann), and Levin Winder (by Florence Mackubin). The room also contains reproductions of portraits of Clarence W. Blount (by Simmie Knox) and Mary Eliza Watters Risteau (by Talmadge of New York).</p><br>
<h2>National capital</h2><br>
<p>From November 26, 1783, to August 13, 1784, Annapolis was the capital of the United States. The Congress of the Confederation met in the Maryland State House. Subsequently, Annapolis was a candidate to become the new permanent national capital before Washington, D.C., was built.</p><br>
<p>It was in the Old Senate Chamber that Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784, formally ending the American Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<h2>United States district court</h2><br>
<p>The United States District Court for the District of Maryland met there for the first decade of its existence. In 1800, judge Samuel Chase tried a local postmaster for embezzlement and sentenced him to thirty-nine lashes. To execute the sentence, the defendant was tied to one of the statehouse columns.</p><br>
<h2>Photo gallery</h2><br>
<p>Pawnee Rock, one of the most famous landmarks on the Santa Fe Trail, is located in Pawnee Rock State Park, just north of Pawnee Rock, Kansas, United States. Originally over 150 ft tall, railroad construction stripped it of some 15 to 20 ft in height for road bed material.</p><br>
<p>A memorial monument, picnic area, and pergola have been constructed on the top. From the top of the pergola is a view the Arkansas River valley and the route of the Santa Fe trail.</p><br>
<p>Today it is a prominence rising 50 or above the surrounding plains. Matt Field, who traveled the Santa Fe Trail in 1840, later wrote, "Pawnee Rock springs like a huge wart from the carpeted green of the prairie." Traders, soldiers, and emigrants who stopped, carved their names into the brown sandstone. Some of these names are still visible among the markings of the more recent visitors.</p><br>
<p>Pawnee Rock was added to the National Register of Historic Places around 1970. The site is administrated by the Kansas Historical Society as the Pawnee Rock State Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Pawnee Rock was long a meeting place of the Comanche, Kiowa, Arapaho and Cheyenne Indians. Numerous battles were fought at Pawnee Rock between the tribes, and as a result, many bones have been found in the soil in the vicinity.</p><br>
<p>Pawnee Rock was for many years a place where Comanche, Kiowa, Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Pawnee tribes held their councils of war and peace. Many Indian battles were fought nearby in the days before the white men came to Kansas.</p><br>
<p>It served as a lookout for travelers on the Santa Fe Trail, as well as a rendezvous and ambush for the Indians. As a camping spot it afforded some protection against hostile Indians. Many travelers and traders on the Santa Fe trail considered Pawnee Rock the most dangerous place on the Central Plains for encounters with the Indians.</p><br>
<p>Many of the Plains tribes reportedly used it as an observation point from which they could track and swoop down upon buffalo herds and wagon trains. It was also a landmark for travelers, marking the half waypoint between Missouri and Santa Fe. In 1848, James Birch, a soldier on his way to the Mexican War, wrote: "Pawnee Rock was covered with names carved by the men who had passed it. It was so full that I could find no place for mine.".</p><br>
<h2>Naming Pawnee Rock</h2><br>
<h2>Bibliography</h2><br>
<p>Biographical History of Barton County, Kansas; Tribune Publishing Co. Great Bend, Kansas; 1912 p 145</p><br>
<p>Blackmar, Frank W. Kansas, A cyclopedia of State History, V. 2; Chicago Standard Publishing Col; 1912; pp 455–457</p><br>
<p>Porter, Clyde & Mae Reed and John E. Sunder; Matt Field on the Santa Fe Trail; University of Oklahoma Press; Norman, Oklahoma; 1960</p><br>
<p>Survey of Historic Sites and Structures in Kansas; Kansas State Historical Society; Topeka, Kansas; 1957</p><br>
<p>The parish of Trinity Church has three separate burial grounds associated with it in the New York City borough of Manhattan. The first, Trinity Churchyard, is located in Lower Manhattan at 74 Trinity Place, near Wall Street and Broadway. Alexander Hamilton and his wife Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, Albert Gallatin, and Robert Fulton are buried in the downtown Trinity Churchyard.</p><br>
<p>The second Trinity parish burial ground is the St. Paul&#39;s Chapel Churchyard, which is also located in lower Manhattan (roughly 440 yd), six blocks north of Trinity Church. It was established in 1766. Both of these churchyards are closed to new burials.</p><br>
<p>Trinity&#39;s third place of burial, Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum, located in Hamilton Heights in Upper Manhattan, is one of the few active burial sites in Manhattan. Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum is listed on the National Register of Historic places and is the burial place of notable people including John James Audubon, John Jacob Astor IV, Mayor Edward I. Koch, Governor John Adams Dix, Ralph Ellison, and Eliza Jumel. In 1823, all burials south of Canal Street became forbidden by New York City due to city crowding, yellow fever, and other public health fears.</p><br>
<p>After considering locations in the Bronx and portions of the then-new Green-Wood Cemetery, in 1842 Trinity Parish purchased the plot of land now bordered by 153rd Street, 155th Street, Amsterdam Avenue, and Riverside Drive to establish the Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum. The cemetery is located beside the Chapel of the Intercession that Audubon co-founded in 1846, but this chapel is no longer part of Trinity parish. James Renwick, Jr., is the architect of Trinity Church Cemetery and further updates were made by Calvert Vaux. The uptown cemetery is also the center of the Heritage Rose District of New York City.</p><br>
<p>A no-longer-extant Trinity Parish burial ground was the Old Saint Johns Burying Ground for St. Johns Chapel. This location is bounded by Hudson, Leroy and Clarkson streets near Hudson Square. It was in use from 1806 to 1852 with over 10,000 burials, mostly poor and young. In 1897, it was turned into St. Johns Park, with most of the burials left in place. The park was later renamed Hudson Park, and is now James J. Walker Park. (This park is different from a separate St. Johns Park, a former private park and residential block approximately one mile to the south that now serves as part of the Holland Tunnel access.)</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<h3>Trinity Churchyard (Broadway and Wall Street)</h3><br>
<p>William Alexander, Lord Stirling (1726–1783), Continental Army major general during the American Revolution</p><br>
<p>John Alsop (1724–1794), Continental Congress delegate</p><br>
<p>William Bayard Jr. (1761–1826), banker</p><br>
<p>William Berczy (1744–1813), Canadian painter and pioneer buried in unmarked grave and name recorded as William Burksay</p><br>
<p>William Bradford (1660–1752), colonial American printer</p><br>
<p>Richard Churcher (1676–1681), a child whose grave is marked with the oldest carved gravestone in New York City</p><br>
<p>Angelica Schuyler Church (1756–1814), daughter of Philip Schuyler, sister of Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton and Margarita Schuyler Van Rensselaer</p><br>
<p>Michael Cresap (1742–1775), frontiersman</p><br>
<p>James De Lancey (1703–1760), Colonial Governor of New York</p><br>
<p>John R. Fellows (1832–1896), USA representative</p><br>
<p>Robert Fulton (1765–1815), inventor of the first commercially successful steamboat</p><br>
<p>Albert Gallatin (1761–1849), USA congressman, Secretary of the Treasury, founder of New York University</p><br>
<p>Horatio Gates (1727–1806), Continental Army general during the American Revolution</p><br>
<p>James Gordon (1735–1783), 80th Regiment of Foot (Royal Edinburgh Volunteers) Lieutenant Colonel</p><br>
<p>Aaron Hackley, Jr. (1783–1868), USA representative</p><br>
<p>Alexander Hamilton (1755/57–1804), American revolutionary patriot and Founding Father; first USA Secretary of the Treasury, and a signer of the United States Constitution, husband of Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton (1757–1854), co-founder and deputy director of New York&#39;s first private orphanage, now Graham Windham</p><br>
<p>Philip Hamilton (1782–1801), first son of Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton and Alexander Hamilton, grandson of USA General Philip Schuyler, nephew of Angelica Schuyler Church and Margarita Schuyler Van Rensselaer</p><br>
<p>John Sloss Hobart (1738–1805), USA senator</p><br>
<p>William Hogan (1792–1874), USA congressman</p><br>
<p>James Lawrence (1781–1813), naval hero during the War of 1812</p><br>
<p>Francis Lewis (1713–1802), signer of the Declaration of Independence</p><br>
<p>Walter Livingston (1740–1797), delegate to the Continental Congress</p><br>
<p>Luther Martin (1744–1826), delegate to the Continental Congress</p><br>
<p>Charles McKnight (1750–1791), Continental Army surgeon</p><br>
<p>John Jordan Morgan (1770–1849), USA representative</p><br>
<p>Hercules Mulligan (1740–1825), spy during the American Revolution, friend of Alexander Hamilton</p><br>
<p>Thomas Jackson Oakley (1783–1857), USA representative</p><br>
<p>John Morin Scott (1730–1784), Continental Congress delegate, Revolutionary War general, first secretary of state of New York</p><br>
<p>George Templeton Strong (1820–1875), diarist, abolitionist, lawyer</p><br>
<p>Robert Swartwout (1779–1848), brigadier general, Quartermaster general of the War of 1812</p><br>
<p>Silas Talbot (1750–1813), USA Navy commodore, second captain of the USS Constitution</p><br>
<p>John Watts (1749–1836), USA representative</p><br>
<p>Franklin Wharton (1767–1818), Commandant of the Marine Corps, 1804–1818</p><br>
<p>Hugh Williamson (1735–1802), American politician, signer of the Constitution of the United States</p><br>
<p>John Peter Zenger (1697–1746), newspaper publisher whose libel trial helped establish the right to a free press</p><br>
<p>In the northeast corner stands the Soldiers&#39; Monument, with a plaque reading: "At a meeting of Citizens held at the City Hall of the City of New York June 8, 1852: It was resolved That the Erection of a becoming Monument with appropriate inscriptions by Trinity Church to the Memory of those great and good Men who died whilst in Captivity in the old Sugar House and were interred in Trinity Church Yard in this City will be an act gratifying not only to the attendants of this Meeting but to Every American Citizen."</p><br>
<p>The claim those prisoners are buried in Trinity Churchyard is disputed by Charles I. Bushnell, who argued in 1863 that Trinity Church would not have accepted them because it supported Great Britain. Historian Edwin G. Burrows explains how the controversy related to a proposal to build a public street through the churchyard.</p><br>
<h3>Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum (770 Riverside Drive)</h3><br>
<p>Amsale Aberra (1954–2018), Ethiopian-American fashion designer and entrepreneur</p><br>
<p>Mercedes de Acosta (1893–1968), writer, socialite</p><br>
<p>Rita de Acosta Lydig (1876–1929), socialite</p><br>
<p>Caroline Webster Schermerhorn Astor (1830–1908), socialite, doyenne of Gilded Age New York society</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Astor (1763–1848) business magnate, progenitor of the Astor family of New York</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Astor III (1822–1890), financier and philanthropist</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Astor IV (1864–1912), millionaire killed in the sinking of the Titanic</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Astor VI (1912–1992), shipping magnate</p><br>
<p>William Backhouse Astor, Sr. (1792–1875), real estate businessman</p><br>
<p>William Backhouse Astor, Jr. (1829–1892), businessman and race horse breeder/owner</p><br>
<p>John James Audubon (1785–1851), ornithologist and naturalist</p><br>
<p>Will Barnet (1911–2012), artist</p><br>
<p>Estelle Bennett (1941–2009), member of the 1960s girl group The Ronettes</p><br>
<p>John Romeyn Brodhead (1814–1873) Historian of early colonial New York</p><br>
<p>John J. Cisco (1806–1884), Assistant Treasurer of the United States under presidents Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, and Abraham Lincoln</p><br>
<p>John Winthrop Chanler (1826–1877), United States Congressman</p><br>
<p>Robert Winthrop Chanler (1872–1930), muralist and designer</p><br>
<p>William Astor Chanler (1867–1934), United States Congressman</p><br>
<p>Cadwallader D. Colden (1769–1834), abolitionist (New York Manumission Society) (1806–1834); Mayor of New York City (1818–1821)</p><br>
<p>William Augustus Darling (1817–1895), United States Congressman</p><br>
<p>Alfred D&#39;Orsay Tennyson Dickens (1845–1912), lecturer on the life of his father, Charles Dickens</p><br>
<p>John Adams Dix, (1798–1879) soldier, United States Senator, Secretary of the Treasury, Governor of New York, statesman</p><br>
<p>Ralph Ellison, (1914–1994), novelist, critic, and educator, author of Invisible Man</p><br>
<p>Henry Erben (1832–1909), rear admiral of the United States Navy, serving in the American Civil War and Spanish-American War</p><br>
<p>Herman D. Farrell Jr. (1932–2018), New York State Assembly member</p><br>
<p>Madeleine Talmage Force (1893–1940), socialite, Titanic survivor, second wife of John Jacob Astor IV</p><br>
<p>Bertram Goodhue (1869–1924), American architect and typeface designer, designed the Rockefeller Chapel at the University of Chicago</p><br>
<p>Cuba Gooding Sr. (1944–2017), singer and actor</p><br>
<p>Edward Haight (1817–1885), United States Congressman</p><br>
<p>Katherine Corri Harris (1890–1927), American silent film actor</p><br>
<p>Abraham Oakey Hall (1826–1898), Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<p>Anthony Philip Heinrich (1781–1861), American composer and founding chair of the New York Philharmonic Society</p><br>
<p>Geoffrey Lamont Holder (1930–2014), Trinidadian-American actor, dancer, and choreographer, principal actor for the Metropolitan Opera Ballet in New York City, portrayed Baron Samedi in Live and Let Die</p><br>
<p>David Hosack (1769–1835), physician, botanist, educator, tended to Alexander Hamilton&#39;s mortal wound</p><br>
<p>Charles C. Ingham (1797–1863), Irish-American portraitist</p><br>
<p>Eliza Jumel (1775–1865), second wife of Aaron Burr</p><br>
<p>Dita Hopkins Kinney (1855–1921), first superintendent of United States Army Nurse Corps (1901–1909)</p><br>
<p>Edward I. Koch (1924–2013), Mayor of New York City (1978–1989)</p><br>
<p>John Lewis (1920–2001), American jazz pianist and founder of the Modern Jazz Quartet</p><br>
<p>Robert O. Lowery (1916–2001), first African-American New York City Fire Commissioner (1966–1973)</p><br>
<p>George Malloy (1920–2008), pianist, accompanied Camilla Williams singing "The Star-Spangled Banner", preceding Martin Luther King Jr. delivering his "I Have a Dream" speech, during the August 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</p><br>
<p>Robert Bowne Minturn (1805–1866), prominent New York merchant, philanthropist; shipper owner of Flying Cloud</p><br>
<p>James Monroe (1799–1870), USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Clement Clarke Moore (1779–1863), clergyman, attributed author of Christmas poem A Visit from St. Nicholas</p><br>
<p>Jerry Orbach (1935–2004), actor, singer</p><br>
<p>Samuel B. Ruggles (1799–1881), politician, member of the New York State Assembly, donated land used to create Gramercy Park in New York City</p><br>
<p>Francis Shubael Smith (1819–1887), co-founder of Street & Smith publishing</p><br>
<p>Thomas Fielding Scott (1807–1867), first missionary Episcopal Bishop of Washington and Oregon</p><br>
<p>Samuel Seabury (1873–1958), New York City judge, not to be confused with the known rival of Alexander Hamilton</p><br>
<p>Frederick Clarke Withers (1828–1901), English-American architect in the High Victorian Gothic style</p><br>
<p>Fernando Wood (1812–1881), Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<h3>St. Paul&#39;s Chapel Churchyard (Broadway at Fulton Street)</h3><br>
<p>George Frederick Cooke (1756–1812), actor</p><br>
<p>Richard Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont (1636–1701), British colonial governor</p><br>
<p>John Holt (1721–1784), publisher</p><br>
<p>William Houstoun (1755–1813), Continental Congress delegate for whom Houston Street was named</p><br>
<p>Richard Montgomery (1738–1775) Major General in the Continental Army during the American Revolution</p><br>
<p>Stephen Rochefontaine (1755–1814), Continental Army officer during the American Revolution</p><br>
<p>The Pan-Pacific Auditorium was a landmark structure in the Fairfax District of Los Angeles, California. It once stood near the site of Gilmore Field, an early Los Angeles baseball venue predating Dodger Stadium. It was located within sight of both CBS Television City on the southeast corner of Beverly and Fairfax Avenue and the Farmers Market on the northeast corner of Third Street and Fairfax. For over 35 years it was the premier location for indoor public events in Los Angeles. The facility was closed in 1972, beginning 17 years of steady neglect and decay. In 1978, the Pan-Pacific Auditorium was included in the National Register of Historic Places, but eleven years later the sprawling wooden structure was destroyed in a fire.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural icon</h2><br>
<p>Built by event promoters Phillip and Cliff Henderson and designed by Los Angeles architects Wurdeman & Becket, the Pan-Pacific Auditorium opened to a fanfare of Boy Scout bugles on May 18, 1935 for a 16-day model home exhibition. Noted as one of the finest examples of Streamline Moderne architecture in the United States, the green and white facade faced west, was 228 ft long and had four stylized towers and flagpoles meant to evoke upswept aircraft fins. The widely known and much photographed facade belied a modest rectilinear wooden structure resembling an overgrown gymnasium inside and out. The auditorium sprawled across 100,000 ft&sup2; and had seating for up to 6,000.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the following 30 years the Pan-Pacific would host the Ice Capades and the Harlem Globetrotters, serve as home to the Los Angeles Monarchs of the Pacific Coast Hockey League along with UCLA ice hockey, UCLA mens basketball, USC mens basketball, professional tennis, car shows, political rallies and circuses. During the 1940s it was used for audience-attended national radio broadcasts and in the 1950s for televised professional wrestling shows. At its height, most major indoor events in Los Angeles were held at the Pan-Pacific. Leopold Stokowski conducted there in 1936, 1950s actress Jeanne Crain was crowned "Miss Pan Pacific" there in the early 1940s, General Dwight D. Eisenhower spoke to a beyond-capacity crowd of 10,000 in 1952 a month before being elected President of the United States, Elvis Presley performed there in 1957 shortly before he was drafted into the Army and Vice President Richard Nixon addressed a national audience from the Pan-Pacific in November 1960. The building carried on as Los Angeles&#39; primary indoor venue until the 1972 opening of the much larger Los Angeles Convention Center, after which the Pan-Pacific Auditorium was closed.</p><br>
<h2>Decay and fire</h2><br>
<p>There were hopes throughout the surrounding Fairfax District towards refurbishing the Pan-Pacific, possibly as an ice rink or cultural center and the parking lot soon became a park. However, the building was neglected for many years and damaged by small fires started by transients.</p><br>
<p>In 1975, the Pan-Pacific made a brief appearance as the entrance to the NBC Studios in Hollywood for the movie Funny Lady. Interest in the building was rekindled somewhat with its 1978 inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. The 1980 release of the movie musical Xanadu brought renewed hopes the building might be saved when the auditorium&#39;s facade was used to portray a dilapidated building which became a sparkling, brightly lit roller disco nightclub, but the movie was critically panned and not an economic success. It also appears at the beginning of the 1980 music video for the Barnes & Barnes song "Fish Heads". Black-and-white film footage of a man with a jet pack flying from left to right in front of the facade was used in the video for the 1981 Devo single, "Beautiful World". The dilapidated façade was used in the video for "Dancing in the Sheets" by Shalamar. Its final appearance was in the 1988 movie Miracle Mile.</p><br>
<p>The auditorium continued to deteriorate throughout the 1980s, mostly owing to neglect. A large loading door on the southeast corner was often forced open, allowing free access to anyone. A fire in May 1983 damaged the northern end. On the evening of May 24, 1989 (six days after the 54th anniversary of its opening), the Pan-Pacific Auditorium was destroyed by a bigger fire, the smoke from which was visible throughout the Los Angeles basin.</p><br>
<h2>Site today</h2><br>
<p>The site is now part of Pan-Pacific Park. An urban park with a recreation center, designed as a scaled-down replica of one of the famous towers, opened in 2002.</p><br>
<h2>Pop culture</h2><br>
<p>The facade of the building was used in the motion picture Xanadu, in which a muse (a daughter of Zeus) convinces two men to convert the classic but decaying building into a music and entertainment venue. Through special effects, the building is transformed to outshine the building in its heyday.</p><br>
<p>The video for "She&#39;s My Girl" by The Babys featured the band playing in front of, as well as on top of the building and its iconic flagpole facades.</p><br>
<p>Similarly, The Producers&#39; 1982 music video "She Sheila" was partly filmed in front of the facade.</p><br>
<p>The 1984 motion picture Ghost Warrior, in which a deep-frozen 400-year-old samurai is shipped to Los Angeles, where he comes back to life, includes scenes of both the seriously decayed façade and the dimly lit interior. In the interior shots, the columns with angled knee bracing and the distinctive arched bowstring trusses are briefly visible.</p><br>
<p>The music video for the 1988 song "Going Back to Cali" by LL Cool J has a black and white photograph of the building in the opening sequence.</p><br>
<p>A nearly full-scale, stylized replica of the façade opened as the main entrance to Disney&#39;s Hollywood Studios theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida on May 1, 1989, just three weeks before the original was destroyed by fire.</p><br>
<p>Disney California Adventure Park, at the Disneyland Resort, opened new entrance gates in the style of the Pan-Pacific&#39;s façade on July 15, 2011.</p><br>
<p>The Springfield Armory, more formally known as the United States Armory and Arsenal at Springfield located in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, was the primary center for the manufacture of United States military firearms from 1777 until its closing in 1968. It was the first federal armory and one of the first factories in the United States dedicated to the manufacture of weapons. The site is preserved as the Springfield Armory National Historic Site, Western Massachusetts only unit of the national park system. It features the worlds largest collection of historic American firearms.</p><br>
<p>Famous first as the United States primary arsenal during the American Revolutionary War, and then as the scene of a confrontation during Shays Rebellion, the Springfield Armory in the 19th and 20th centuries became the site of numerous technological innovations of global importance, including interchangeable parts, the assembly line style of mass production, and modern business practices, such as hourly wages. The facility would play a decisive role in the American Civil War, producing most of the weaponry used by Union troops which, in sum, outpaced Confederate firearm production by a ratio of 32 to 1. American historian Merritt Roe Smith has posited that advancements in machine manufacturing which allowed the facility to increase production capacity by more than 25 fold, from 9,601 rifles in 1860 to 276,200 in 1864, served as a precursor to the mass production of the Second Industrial Revolution and 20th century assembly line production. The numerous firearm models produced at the Springfield Armory from 1794 to 1968 are referred to as "Springfield muskets and rifles".</p><br>
<h2>Founding (1777)</h2><br>
<p>Local and colonial militia used the bluff on which the Springfield Armory would become located during the 17th century for militia training, particularly after the Attack on Springfield during King Philip&#39;s War.</p><br>
<p>In 1777, during the American Revolutionary War, George Washington scouted and approved the site of the Springfield Armory, after it was referred to him by General Henry Knox, his artillery chief. Although a small town at the time, Springfield, Massachusetts, offered obvious geographical advantages—it lay at the intersection of three rivers (including the major Connecticut River), and four major roads headed toward New York City, Boston, Albany, and Montreal. Additionally, Springfield is located just north of the Connecticut River&#39;s first waterfall (Enfield Falls), which is too steep to be navigated by ocean-going vessels. Thus, Springfield was the first town on the Connecticut River protected from attack by seafaring naval vessels.</p><br>
<p>The Armory site itself sits atop a high bluff like a citadel, overlooking a wide stretch of the Connecticut River, at its confluence with the Westfield River. General Knox concurred with Washington that "the plain just above Springfield is perhaps one of the most proper spots on every account" for the location of an arsenal.</p><br>
<p>In 1777, patriot colonists established "The Arsenal at Springfield" to manufacture cartridges and gun carriages for the war effort. During the Revolution, the arsenal stored muskets, cannon, and other weapons. Patriots built barracks, shops, storehouses, and a magazine. Some doubt exists that the colonists manufactured arms during the Revolutionary War. After the war, the Army kept the facility to store arms for future needs. By the 1780s, the Springfield Arsenal functioned as a major ammunition and weapons arsenal.</p><br>
<p>Some time later, when manufacturing became important, the arsenal expanded to a second area south and west in Springfield, where water power was available. Around that time, the Mill River was dammed to form a mile-long lake called Watershops Pond. The main shops were behind the dam and a foundry was built below it. This factory was modernized, and the greater part of machining for Springfield and Garand rifles was conducted in it.</p><br>
<p>President George Washington appointed David Ames as first superintendent of the armory. His father Capt. John Ames was a blacksmith who had provided guns to the Colonial army.</p><br>
<h2>Shays&#39; Rebellion (1787)</h2><br>
<p>In 1786 and 1787, American Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays led an armed, populist uprising that attempted to overthrow the Government of Massachusetts. On January 25, 1787, thousands of Shays Regulators marched on the Springfield Armory, hoping to seize its weaponry and force a change of government. That day the Springfield Armory was defended by state militia, who fired grapeshot at the rebels, forcing them to flee. This confrontation proved decisive, as Shays Rebellion was crushed soon thereafter, and some of its participants tried for treason.</p><br>
<p>Shays&#39; Rebellion directly influenced the delegates at the 1787 Constitutional Convention. Washington cited it as his reason for coming out of retirement. During the debates over the USA Constitution, in encouraging a stronger Federal government, James Madison cautioned the attendees that "the rebellion in Massachusetts is a warning, gentlemen."</p><br>
<h2>Production (1795–1968)</h2><br>
<h3>Early years</h3><br>
<p>In 1793, the National Arsenal contained brass ordnance, howitzers, traveling carriages, shot strapt, canisters filled, quilted grape, iron shot, shells, powder, musket ball, cylinders, caps, paper cartridges, fuzes filled, muskets, swords, various military stores, and implements. In 1795, the Springfield Armory produced the new nation&#39;s first musket - the Model 1795 Musket which was largely patterned after the French Charleville musket which had armed the French army during the American Revolution.</p><br>
<h3>Early 19th century</h3><br>
<p>The Armory played a major role in providing weapons for the American Army during the War of 1812. Its monthly reports to the War Department are online, and they indicate it made 9588 new muskets in 1814 and repaired 5190 old ones that year. It several times reported that its funding had been delayed.</p><br>
<p>Fueled by the Springfield Armory, the City of Springfield quickly became a national center for invention and development. In 1819 Thomas Blanchard developed a special lathe for the consistent mass production of rifle stocks. Thomas Blanchard worked at Springfield Armory for 5 years. The lathe enabled an unskilled workman to quickly and easily turn out identical irregular shapes. The large drum turned two wheels: a friction wheel that followed the contours of the metal rifle pattern, and the cutting wheel that imitated the movements of the friction wheel to make an exact replica of the pattern in wood. In the 1840s the old flintlock gave way to a percussion ignition system that increased the reliability and simplicity of longarms.</p><br>
<p>The Springfield Armory was largely involved in the growth and influence of the Industrial Revolution. Much of this grew out of the military&#39;s fascination with interchangeable parts, which was based on the theory that it would be easier to simply replace firearm parts than make battlefield repairs. Mass production of truly interchangeable parts demanded greater use of machines, improved gauging, quality control, and division of labor; all characteristics of the Industrial Revolution. From these individual components, the concept of the assembly line was devised.</p><br>
<p>The Springfield Armory also contributed to improved business management techniques. Colonel Roswell Lee, hired as superintendent in 1815, brought centralized authority, cost accounting for payroll, time, and materials, and increased discipline to a manufacturing environment—all business practices still in use today.</p><br>
<p>In 1843, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow visited the Armory and wrote his poem "The Arsenal at Springfield." The anti-war poem described the rows of finished guns, by that point 1,000,000 stockpiled there, stored vertically in open racks: "Like a huge organ, rise the burnished arms."</p><br>
<h3>Late 19th century</h3><br>
<p>With the destruction of the Harpers Ferry Armory early in the American Civil War, the Springfield Armory was briefly the only government manufacturer of arms, until the Rock Island Arsenal was established in 1862. During this time production ramped up to unprecedented levels ever seen in American manufacturing up until that time, with only 9,601 rifles manufactured in 1860, rising to a peak of 276,200 by 1864. These advancements would not only give the Union a decisive technological advantage over the Confederacy during the war but served as a precursor to the mass production manufacturing that contributed to the post-war Second Industrial Revolution and 20th century machine manufacturing capabilities. American historian Merritt Roe Smith has drawn comparisons between the early assembly machining of the Springfield rifles and the later production of the Ford Model T, with the latter having considerably more parts, but producing a similar numbers of units in the earliest years of the 1913–1915 automobile assembly line, indirectly due to mass production manufacturing advancements pioneered by the armory 50 years earlier.</p><br>
<p>In 1865, Master Armorer Erskine Allin introduced the "Allin Conversion," which incorporated the far more advanced design of breech-loading into the now-obsolete muzzleloaders, thereby extending their service life. In 1891 a new function was assigned to the Armory—it became the army&#39;s main laboratory for the development and testing of new small arms.</p><br>
<p>One of the most distinctive elements of the Armory is the fence surrounding the site, which was started after the Civil War and completed in 1890. Unable to find funding for the purchase of a fence, Major James W. Ripley requested obsolete cannons from government storage, some from the Revolutionary War. He had the cannons sent to a local foundry to be melted down. The foundry kept some of the iron as payment, and the remainder was cast into 9-foot palings, formed as pikes and spearheads which were then sunk into a red sandstone base.</p><br>
<h3>Early 20th century</h3><br>
<p>During the Spanish–American War, it was recognized that the Spanish Mauser Model 1893, exhibited characteristics superior to the "trapdoor" Springfield and Krag–Jørgensen rifles carried by the United States troops. On August 15, 1900, Springfield Armory completed an experimental magazine rifle which they believed to be an improvement over the Krag. They fashioned a clip loading magazine rifle in which the cartridges were contained within the stock, preventing damage to an otherwise exposed magazine. It was approved for production in as the Model 1903. Mauser later sued for patent infringement and won royalties from Springfield.</p><br>
<p>By the time that the United States entered World War I, approximately 843,239 standard service Model 1903 rifles had been manufactured. However, this was insufficient to arm USA troops for an undertaking of the magnitude of World War I. During the war Springfield Armory produced over 265,620 Model 1903 rifles. In addition, the War Department contracted for production of the M1917 Enfield Rifle to help aid American troops. These, along with the additional 47,251 rifles produced by the Rock Island Arsenal and the weapons already in service, were enough to supply the war effort. During World War I the Springfield Armory produced ≈25,000 M1911 pistols before all facilities were dedicated to production of M1903 rifles.</p><br>
<p>In 1919, when John Garand was 31, he came to Springfield, where he worked to develop a semi-automatic rifle. Over the next five years many designs were submitted for the rifle, but none met the armys rigid specifications. In 1924, Garand offered a design that was approved for further testing. This was the famous M1, or "Garand rifle" as it came to be known. The army adopted the rifle in 1936, and production began the next year. This began what was to become the greatest production effort in the armorys history: during the entire production history of the M1 rifle, the Springfield Armory produced over 4.5 million of them.</p><br>
<p>The M1&#39;s accuracy and durability in battle earned it high praise. General Douglas MacArthur reported on the M1 to the Ordnance Department during heavy fighting on Bataan that "Under combat conditions it operated with no mechanical defects and when used in foxholes did not develop stoppages from dust or dirt. It has been in almost constant action for as much as a week without cleaning or lubrication." Further testament to the M1s role in combat was given by another well-respected military officer, General George S. Patton, Jr., who reported to the Army Ordnance Department on January 26, 1945, "In my opinion, the M1 Rifle is the greatest battle implement ever devised."</p><br>
<h3>Late 20th century</h3><br>
<p>The last small arm developed by the Armory was the M14 rifle, which was, essentially, a highly modified version of the M1 Garand. The M14 was produced from 1959 to 1964 and was the USA Army&#39;s primary combat rifle until being replaced by the M16 rifle gradually from 1964 to 1970. The M14 has evolved over the years into a more modern sniper rifle—the M21.</p><br>
<p>By the time the USA was involved in the Vietnam War, Springfield Armory developed not only rifles but machine guns for ground and air use, grenade launchers, and associated equipment. Many weapons were not manufactured at the Armory, but plans and specifications were drawn up for the use of private contractors who built them elsewhere, representing an economic shift toward the American private arms industry.</p><br>
<h2>Closure and rebirth as a National Historic Site (1968–present)</h2><br>
<p>In 1968, the Springfield Armory was closed. Outer portions of the armory were sold off, including the "Water Shops" production facilities, which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Water Shops Armory. The core site was preserved and the property was turned over to the city and state.</p><br>
<p>It is now the Springfield Armory National Historic Site, and is managed and operated by the National Park Service. As of 2011, the 35 acres behind the Springfield Armory (and several of its former buildings) housed Springfield Technical Community College (STCC). STCC is the only "technical" community college in Massachusetts, which aims to continue the legacy of technological innovation at the Springfield Armory site.</p><br>
<p>The Main Arsenal Building and the Commanding Officer&#39;s Quarters were extensively renovated by Eastern General Contractors of Springfield, Massachusetts between 1987 and 1991. The Main Arsenal now houses the Springfield Armory Museum, which includes the Benton Small Arms Collection, one of the largest collections of weaponry.</p><br>
<h2>Use of the name "Springfield Armory"</h2><br>
<p>Following the closure of the USA Army Springfield Armory in 1968, the L. H. Gun Co. of Devine, Texas, was renamed Springfield Armory, Inc. to capitalize on the name recognition. There is no affiliation or licensing between the original Springfield Armory and Springfield Armory, Inc., despite a timeline on the commercial website of the latter that includes the history of the former. The company&#39;s products include M1911 pistols and the M1A rifle series.</p><br>
<p>Campus Club was one of the undergraduate eating clubs at Princeton University. Located on the corner of Washington Road and Prospect Avenue, Campus was founded in 1900. It was one of the eating clubs that abandoned the selective bicker process to choose members non-selectively, a status it held for over twenty years.</p><br>
<p>In an attempt to restore the waning popularity of the club, the club&#39;s board pressured the undergraduate officers to reinstate bicker in 2004, causing Campus to become one of six selective clubs (out of eleven total clubs). However, due to the unpopularity of bicker among its members, the club returned to being a sign-in club in the spring of 2005. Facing another year of exceptionally low membership and resulting financial trouble, Campus Club closed later the same year.</p><br>
<p>In November 2005, the former members and alumni of Campus Club voted to donate the building to the university, under the condition that the 11,000 ft&sup2; mansion remain a social venue for Princeton students.</p><br>
<p>After undergoing renovations for over two years, Campus Club reopened on September 18, 2009, as a clubhouse open to all members of the Princeton community.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the 1900–1901 school year, a number of undergraduates from the now-defunct Yama and Ovando Clubs took a lease on a small house on Olden Street in Princeton. Called "The Incubator," the undergraduates used this house as a temporary location while they searched for a more permanent clubhouse.</p><br>
<p>In January 1901, the newly elected members of Campus Club began negotiations to purchase the residence of Professor Andrew Fleming West, which was located at the corner of Washington Road and Prospect Avenue (where Campus Club stands today). The club members financed the purchase of the West house through sale of approximately $45,000 of "Princeton Campus Club Bonds." Once the residence was acquired, the new members began using the West residence as their clubhouse.</p><br>
<p>In 1909, the members of Campus Club elected to construct a new clubhouse, and the original West house was moved to the corner of Nassau Street and Princeton Avenue. The new clubhouse, designed by Raleigh C. Gildersleeve, who had previously designed McCosh Hall and completed alterations to Cap and Gown Club, was completed weeks prior to the 1910 commencement.</p><br>
<p>On November 24, 1951, a fire broke out inside of Campus Club. The fire caused extensive damage to the third floor, and a major renovation was required. Renovations were completed in 1953, and the club remained in this state until it was acquired by the university in 2005.</p><br>
<p>The Oklahoma City National Memorial is a memorial site in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States, that honors the victims, survivors, rescuers, and all who were affected by the Oklahoma City bombing on April 19, 1995. It is situated on the former site of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, which was destroyed in the bombing. The building was located on NW 5th Street between N. Robinson Avenue and N. Harvey Avenue.</p><br>
<p>The national memorial was authorized on October 9, 1997, by President Bill Clinton&#39;s signing of the Oklahoma City National Memorial Act of 1997. It was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places the same day. The memorial is administered by Oklahoma City National Memorial Foundation, with National Park Service staff to help interpret the memorial for visitors.</p><br>
<p>The memorial was formally dedicated on April 19, 2000, the fifth anniversary of the bombing. The museum was dedicated and opened 10 months later on February 19, 2001.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On April 19, 1995, Timothy McVeigh parked a Ryder rental truck filled with explosives in front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building and exploded it. A total of 168 people were killed, including many children, and the entire north face of the building was destroyed.</p><br>
<p>Months after the attack, Mayor Ron Norick appointed a task force to look into the creation of a permanent memorial where the Murrah building once stood. The Task Force called for a symbolic outdoor memorial, a Memorial Museum, and for the creation of the Oklahoma City National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism. Six hundred and twenty four designs were submitted for the memorial. In July 1997 a design by Butzer Design Partnership, consisting of husband and wife Hans and Torrey Butzer, was chosen.</p><br>
<p>In October 1997, President Bill Clinton signed law creating the Oklahoma City National Memorial to be operated by the Oklahoma City National Memorial Trust. The total cost of the memorial was $29.1 million ($55,140,783.18 in 2023): $10 million for the Outdoor Symbolic Memorial, $7 million for the Memorial Museum, $5 million for the Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism and the rest for other costs. The federal government appropriated $5 million for construction with the state of Oklahoma matching that amount. More than $17 million in private donations was raised.</p><br>
<p>On April 19, 2000, the fifth anniversary of the attack, the Outdoor Symbolic Memorial was dedicated. On February 19, 2001, the Memorial Museum was dedicated. In 2004 it was transferred from the trust, to the Oklahoma City National Memorial Foundation, designating it an affiliated area of the National Park System. The Oklahoma City National Memorial since its opening has seen over 4.4 million visitors to the Outdoor Symbolic Memorial and 1.6 million visitors to the Memorial Museum. The Memorial has an average of 350,000 visitors per year.</p><br>
<h2>Memorial features</h2><br>
<p>The Outdoor Symbolic Memorial consists of the following segments on 3.3 acres (13,000 m) and is accessible day or night.</p><br>
<p>The Gates of Time: monumental twin bronze gates frame the moment of destruction – 9:02 – and mark the formal entrances to the Outdoor Memorial. 9:01, found on the eastern gate, represents the last moments of peace, while its opposite on the western gate, 9:03, represents the first moments of recovery. Both time stamps are inscribed on the interior of the monument, facing each other and the Reflecting Pool.</p><br>
<p>We come here to remember</p><br>
<p>Those who were killed, those who survived and those who changed forever.</p><br>
<p>May all who leave here know the impact of violence.</p><br>
<p>May this memorial offer comfort, strength, peace, hope and serenity.</p><br>
<p>Reflecting Pool: a thin layer of water flows over polished black granite to form the pool, which runs east to west down the center of the Memorial (also see reflecting pool) on what was once Fifth Street. Although the pool is flowing, visitors are able to see a mirror image of themselves in the water. Visitors seeing their reflections are said to be seeing "someone changed forever by what happened here."</p><br>
<p>Field of Empty Chairs: one hundred and sixty-eight empty chairs hand-crafted from glass, bronze, and stone represent those who lost their lives, with a name etched in the glass base of each. They sit on the site where the Murrah Building once stood. The chairs are arranged in nine rows to symbolize the nine floors of the building; each persons chair is on the row (or the floor) on which the person worked or was located when the bomb went off. The chairs are also grouped according to the blast pattern, with the most chairs nearest the most heavily damaged portion of the building. The westernmost column of five chairs represents the five people who died but were not in the Murrah Building (two in the Water Resources Board building, one in the Athenian Building, one outside near the building, and one rescuer). The 19 smaller chairs represent the children killed in the bombing. Three unborn children died along with their mothers, and they are listed on their mothers chairs beneath their mothers&#39; names.</p><br>
<p>Survivors Wall: the only remaining original portions of the Murrah Building are the north and east walls, known as the Survivors Wall. The wall has several panels of granite salvaged from the Murrah Building itself, inscribed with the names of more than 600 survivors from the building and the surrounding area, many of whom were injured in the blast.</p><br>
<p>Survivor Tree: an American elm on the north side of the Memorial that was heavily damaged by the bomb, but survived. Hundreds of seeds from the Survivor Tree are planted annually and the resulting saplings are distributed each year on the anniversary of the bombing. Thousands of Survivor Trees are growing in public and private places all over the USA</p><br>
<p>The Memorial Fence: a 10 ft chain link fence was installed around the area that is now the Reflecting Pool and the Field of Empty Chairs to protect the site from damage and visitors from injury. The Fence stood for more than four years, becoming notable as the place where visitors left stuffed animals, poems, keychains, and other items as tributes. During the construction of the Outdoor Memorial, 210 feet (64 m) of the Fence was moved to the west side of the Memorial, along the 9:03 side or the healing side. The remainder of the Fence is in storage. Visitors may still leave small items along and in the Fence; the mementos are periodically collected, cataloged, and stored.</p><br>
<p>Rescuers Orchard: a grove of Oklahoma redbuds (Oklahomas state tree), Amur Maple, Chinese Pistache, and Bosque Elm trees are planted on the lawn around the Survivor Tree. The trees represent the rescuers who came to the aid of the survivors; hence the rescuers&#39; orchard surrounds the survivor tree. The non-native species represent those rescuers who came from outside Oklahoma to help.</p><br>
<p>Childrens Area: more than 5,000 hand-painted tiles, from all over the United States and Canada, were made by children and sent to Oklahoma City after the bombing in 1995. Most are stored in the Memorials Archives, and a sampling of tiles is on the wall in the Childrens Area. Chalkboards provide a place where children can draw and share their feelings. The Childrens Area is north of the 9:03 gate, on the west side of the Museum.</p><br>
<p>Journal Record Building: north of the memorial is the Journal Record Building, which formerly housed the offices of The Journal Record. It now houses the Oklahoma City National Memorial Museum, which features numerous exhibits and artifacts related to the Oklahoma City bombing.</p><br>
<p>Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building Plaza: located just south of the Field of Empty Chairs, above the underground parking garage, is the raised Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building Plaza. An original part of the federal building, the plaza had a garden and seating areas, as well as a playground for the daycare center. Visitors to the Memorial can walk across the plaza, where the original flagpole is used for the American flag.</p><br>
<h2>Adjacent memorials</h2><br>
<p>Two churches were located across the street from the Murrah Building. Both were heavily damaged by the blast. Each church was repaired and both constructed memorials on their property. While not part of the official memorial they are open to the public.</p><br>
<p>Heartland Chapel: across the street from the 9:01 gate is an open air wooden chapel erected by First United Methodist Church of Oklahoma City. The altar is made from church stones damaged by the bombing. A substantial portion of the funding for the chapel was provided by the Jewish community.</p><br>
<p>And Jesus Wept: across the street from the 9:03 gate is a sculpture of Jesus weeping erected by St. Joseph&#39;s Catholic Church, one of the first brick-and-mortar churches built in the city. Jesus faces away from the devastation, covering his face with his hand. In front of Jesus is a wall with 168 gaps in it, representing the voids left by each life lost.</p><br>
<p>The Auditorium Building in Chicago is one of the best-known designs of Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler. Completed in 1889, the building is located at the northwest corner of South Michigan Avenue and Ida B. Wells Drive. The building was designed to be a multi-use complex, including offices, a theater, and a hotel. As a young apprentice, Frank Lloyd Wright worked on some of the interior design.</p><br>
<p>The Auditorium Theatre is part of the Auditorium Building and is located at 50 East Ida B. Wells Drive. The theater was the first home of the Chicago Civic Opera and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra.</p><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 17, 1970. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1975, and was designated a Chicago Landmark on September 15, 1976. In addition, it is a historic district contributing property for the Chicago Landmark Historic Michigan Boulevard District. Since 1947, the Auditorium Building has been part of Roosevelt University.</p><br>
<h2>Origin and purpose</h2><br>
<p>Ferdinand Peck, a Chicago businessman, incorporated the Chicago Auditorium Association in December 1886 to develop what he wanted to be the world&#39;s largest, grandest, most expensive theater that would rival such institutions as the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City. He was said to have wanted to make high culture accessible to the working classes of Chicago.</p><br>
<p>The building was to include an office block and a first class hotel. Peck persuaded many Chicago business tycoons to go on board with him, including Marshall Field, Edson Keith, Martin A. Ryerson, Charles L. Hutchinson and George Pullman. The association hired the renowned architectural firm of Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan to design the building. At the time, a young Frank Lloyd Wright was employed at the firm as draftsman, and he may have contributed to the design."Some interior details were probably drawn by Frank Lloyd Wright, who started in Sullivan&#39;s office as a draftsman in 1887."</p><br>
<p>Banister Fletcher. A History of Architecture. p. 1241.</p><br>
<p>The Auditorium was built for a syndicate of businessmen to house a large civic opera house; to provide an economic base it was decided to wrap the auditorium with a hotel and office block. Hence Adler & Sullivan had to plan a complex multiple-use building. Fronting on Michigan Avenue, overlooking the lake, was the hotel (now Roosevelt University) while the offices were placed to the west on Wabash Avenue. The entrance to the auditorium is on the south side beneath the tall blocky eighteen-story tower. The rest of the building is a uniform ten stories, organized in the same way as Richardsons Marshall Field Wholesale Store. The interior embellishment, however, is wholly Sullivans, and some of the details, because of their continuous curvilinear foliate motifs, are among the nearest equivalents to European Art Nouveau architecture.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Sullivan and Adler designed a tall structure with load-bearing outer walls, and based the exterior appearance partly on the design of H.H. Richardson&#39;s Marshall Field Warehouse, another Chicago landmark. The Auditorium is a heavy, impressive structure externally, and was more striking in its day when buildings of its scale were less common. When completed, it was the tallest building in the city and largest building in the United States.</p><br>
<p>One of the most innovative features of the building was its massive raft foundation, designed by Adler in conjunction with engineer Paul Mueller. The soil beneath the Auditorium consists of soft blue clay to a depth of over 100 feet, which made conventional foundations impossible. Adler and Mueller designed a floating mat of crisscrossed railroad ties, topped with a double layer of steel rails embedded in concrete, the whole assemblage coated with pitch.</p><br>
<p>The resulting raft distributed the weight of the massive outer walls over a large area. However, the weight of the masonry outer walls in relation to the relatively lightweight interior deformed the raft during the course of a century, and today portions of the building have settled as much as 29 inches. This deflection is clearly visible in the theater lobby, where the mosaic floor takes on a distinct slope as it nears the outer walls. This settlement is not because of poor engineering but the fact the design was changed during construction. The original plan had the exterior covered in lightweight terra-cotta, but this was changed to stone after the foundations were under construction. Most of the settlement occurred within a decade after construction, and at one time a plan existed to shorten the interior supports to level the floors but this was never carried out.</p><br>
<p>In the center of the building was a 4,300 seat auditorium, originally intended primarily for production of Grand Opera. In keeping with Peck&#39;s democratic ideals, the auditorium was designed so that all seats would have good views and acoustics. The original plans had no box seats and when these were added to the plans they did not receive prime locations.</p><br>
<p>Housed in the building around the central space were an 1890 addition of 136 offices and a 400-room hotel, whose purpose was to generate much of the revenue to support the opera. While the Auditorium Building was not intended as a commercial building, Peck wanted it to be self-sufficient. Revenue from the offices and hotel was meant to allow ticket prices to remain reasonable. In reality, both the hotel and office block became unprofitable within a few years.</p><br>
<h2>Later uses</h2><br>
<p>On October 5, 1887, President Grover Cleveland laid the cornerstone for the Auditorium Building. The 1888 Republican National Convention was held in a partially finished building where Benjamin Harrison was nominated as a presidential candidate. On December 9, 1889, President Benjamin Harrison dedicated the building and opera star Adelina Patti sang "Home Sweet Home" to thunderous applause. Adler & Sullivan had also opened their offices on the 16th and 17th floors of the Auditorium tower.</p><br>
<p>The Chicago Symphony Orchestra debuted on October 16, 1891, and made its home in the Auditorium Theatre until moving to Orchestra Hall in 1904.</p><br>
<p>The opera company renting the accommodation moved to the Civic Opera House in 1929, and the Auditorium Theatre closed during the Great Depression. In 1941, it was taken over by the city of Chicago to be used as a World War II servicemen&#39;s center. By 1946, Roosevelt University moved into the Auditorium Building, but the theater was not restored to its former splendor.</p><br>
<p>In 1952, Congress Parkway was widened, bringing the curb to the southern edge of the building. To make room for a sidewalk, some ground-floor rooms and part of the theater lobby were removed and a sidewalk arcade created.</p><br>
<p>On October 31, 1967, the Auditorium Theatre reopened and through 1975, the Auditorium served as a rock venue. Among other notable acts, the Grateful Dead played there ten times from 1971 through 1977.</p><br>
<p>The Doors also played their first concert at the Auditorium Building after their arrest of singer Jim Morrison on June 14, 1969.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark by the USA Department of the Interior in 1975.</p><br>
<p>The building was equipped with the first central air conditioning system and the theater was the first to be entirely lit by incandescent light bulbs. In 2001, a major restoration of the Auditorium Theatre was begun by Daniel P. Coffey and Associates in conjunction with EverGreene Architectural Arts to return the theater to its original colors and finishes.</p><br>
<p>On April 30, 2015, the National Football League held its 2015 NFL draft in the Auditorium Theatre, the first time the league had held its annual draft in Chicago in more than 50 years.</p><br>
<p>The Breakers is a Gilded Age mansion located at 44 Ochre Point Avenue, Newport, Rhode Island, US. It was built between 1893 and 1895 as a summer residence for Cornelius Vanderbilt II, a member of the wealthy Vanderbilt family.</p><br>
<p>The 70-room mansion, with a gross area of 138,300 ft2 and 62,482 ft2 of living area on five floors, was designed by Richard Morris Hunt in the Renaissance Revival style; the interior decor was by Jules Allard and Sons and Ogden Codman Jr.</p><br>
<p>The Ochre Point Avenue entrance is marked by baroque forged wrought iron gates, and the 30 ft walkway gates are part of a 12 ft limestone-and-iron fence that borders the property on all but the ocean side. The footprint of the house covers approximately 1 acre or 43,000 square feet of the 14 acre estate on the cliffs overlooking Easton Bay of the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<p>The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1994. It is also a contributing property to the Bellevue Avenue Historic District. The property is owned and operated by the Newport Preservation Society as a museum and is open for visits all year.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Cornelius Vanderbilt II purchased the grounds in 1885 for $450,000 (equivalent to $ in ). The previous mansion on the property was owned by Pierre Lorillard IV; it burned on November 25, 1892, and Vanderbilt commissioned famed architect Richard Morris Hunt to rebuild it in splendor. Vanderbilt insisted that the building be made as fireproof as possible, resulting in a structure composed of masonry and steel trusses, with no wooden parts. He even required that the boiler be located away from the house in an underground space below the front lawn.</p><br>
<p>The designers created an interior using marble imported from Italy and Africa, and rare woods and mosaics from countries around the world. It also included architectural elements purchased from chateaux in France, such as the library mantel. Expansion was finally finished in 1892.</p><br>
<p>The Breakers is the architectural and social archetype of the "Gilded Age", a period when members of the Vanderbilt family were among the major industrialists of America. It was the largest, most opulent house in the Newport area upon its completion in 1895.</p><br>
<p>Vanderbilt died from a cerebral hemorrhage caused by a stroke in 1899 at age 55, leaving The Breakers to his wife Alice Gwynne Vanderbilt. She outlived him by 35 years and died at the age of 89 in 1934. She left The Breakers to her youngest daughter Countess Gladys Széchenyi (1886–1965), essentially because Gladys lacked American property; in addition, none of her other children were interested in the property, while Gladys had always loved the estate.</p><br>
<p>In 1948, Gladys leased the high-maintenance property to The Preservation Society of Newport County for $1 per year. The Preservation Society bought The Breakers and approximately 90% of its furnishings in 1972 for $365,000 (equivalent to $ in ) from Countess Sylvia Szapary, Gladys&#39;s daughter, although the agreement granted her life tenancy. Upon her death in 1998, The Preservation Society agreed to allow the family to continue to live on the third floor, which is not open to the public. This occupancy ended in 2018.</p><br>
<h2>Gardens</h2><br>
<p>The pea-gravel driveway is lined with maturing pin oaks and red maples. The trees of The Breakers&#39; grounds act as screens that increase the sense of distance between The Breakers and its Newport neighbors. Among the more unusual imported trees are two examples of the Blue Atlas Cedar, a native of North Africa. Clipped hedges of Japanese yew and Pfitzer juniper line the tree-shaded footpaths that meander about the grounds. Informal plantings of arbor vitae, taxus, Chinese juniper, and dwarf hemlock provide attractive foregrounds for the walls that enclose the formally landscaped terrace.</p><br>
<p>The grounds also contain several varieties of other rare trees, copper and weeping beeches. Today’s pattern for the south parterre garden was determined from old photographs and laid out in pink and white alyssum and blue ageratum. The wide borders paralleling the wrought iron fence are planted with rhododendrons, mountain laurel, dogwoods, and many other flowering shrubs that effectively screen the grounds from street traffic and give visitors a feeling of seclusion.</p><br>
<h2>Layout</h2><br>
<h3>Basement</h3><br>
<p>Laundry</p><br>
<p>Staff&#39;s restrooms</p><br>
<h3>First floor</h3><br>
<p>Entrance foyer</p><br>
<p>Gentlemen&#39;s reception room</p><br>
<p>Ladies&#39; reception room</p><br>
<p>Great hall (50 ×) – Over each of the six doors that lead from the Great Hall are limestone figure groups celebrating humanity&#39;s progress in art, science, and industry: Galileo, representing science; Dante, representing literature; Apollo, representing the arts; Mercury, representing speed and commerce; Richard Morris Hunt, representing architecture; and Karl Bitter, representing sculpture.</p><br>
<p>Main staircase</p><br>
<p>Arcade</p><br>
<p>Library – The library has coffered ceilings painted with a dolphin, symbolic of the sea and hospitality, supported by Circassian walnut paneling impressed with gold leaf in the form of a leather-bound book. Between the ceiling and the gold paneling lies green Spanish leather embossed with gold, which continues into the library from the alcove used for cards. Inside the central library are two busts: a bronze of William Henry Vanderbilt II, the oldest child of Cornelius II and Alice, who died of typhoid at the age of 21 while attending Yale University; and a marble of Cornelius Vanderbilt II. The fireplace, taken from a 16th-century French chateau (Arnay-le-Duc, Burgundy), bears the inscription "I laugh at great wealth, and never miss it; nothing but wisdom matters in the end." (Alice Claypoole Vanderbilt) and her daughters, Gladys Vanderbilt Széchenyi and Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, having tea in the library at The Breakers, Newport, Rhode Island, William Bruce Ellis Ranken, 1932 at The Breakers</p><br>
<p>Music room – The room&#39;s open interior was used for recitals and dances. Its woodwork and furnishings were designed by Richard Van der Boyen and completed by Jules Allard and Sons. The room has a gilt coffered ceiling lined with silver and gold, as well as an elliptical ceiling molding which bears the inscription in French of song, music, harmony and melody. Around the edge are the names of well-known composers. The fireplace is of Campan marble and the tables were designed to match. Mr. Vanderbilt was known to play the violin and Mrs. Vanderbilt the piano, which is a Second Empire French mahogany ormolu mounted piano.</p><br>
<p>Morning room – Designed by the French company head Jules Allard, this communal sitting room faces east to admit the morning sun, and was used throughout the day. Placed around the room are platinum-leafed panels illustrated with 8 of the 9 muses. All interior woodwork and furnishings were designed and constructed in France, then shipped to America before assembly.</p><br>
<p>Lower loggia</p><br>
<p>Billiards room – Designed in the style of ancient Rome, this room shows m Richard Morris Hunt’s competence in stone works. The great slabs of Cippolino marble from Italy form the walls, while rose alabaster arches provide contrast. Throughout the room there is an assortment of semi-precious stones, forming mosaics of acorns (the Vanderbilt family emblem, intended to show strength and longevity) and billiards balls on the top walls. The Renaissance style mahogany furniture provides further contrast with that of the colored marble.</p><br>
<p>Dining room – The 2,400 ft2 dining room is the house&#39;s grandest room and has 12 freestanding rose alabaster Corinthian columns supporting a colossal carved and gilt cornice. Rich in allegory, this room serves as an exemplar of what 19th-century technology could do with Roman ideas and 18th-century inspiration. On the ceiling, the goddess Aurora is depicted bringing in the dawn on a four-horse chariot as Greek figures pose majestically. A 16th-century style table of carved oak seats up to 34. Two Baccarat crystal chandeliers light the room with either gas or electricity, and 18, 22 or 24 carat gold gilt is adhered to the wall with rabbit-skin glue.</p><br>
<p>Breakfast room – The breakfast room, with its modified Louis XV style paneling and furnishings, was used for family morning meals. The furnishings, colors and gilt, although still extravagant in their use, contrast with the dining room&#39;s more lavish decoration.</p><br>
<p>Pantry – A central dumbwaiter brought additional china and glassware down from the mezzanine level. The pantry was also used for the storage of the family&#39;s table silver; this was brought with the family when they traveled, and stored in a steel vault. An intercom system allows the butler to direct the necessary servants to their needed locations, and each number on the caller corresponds to a number on a room.</p><br>
<p>Kitchen – The kitchen, unlike others in the time period, was situated on the first floor away from the main house to prevent the possibility of fires and cooking smells reaching the main parts of the house. The well-ventilated room supports a 21 ft cast iron stove, which heats up as a single element through a coal burning stove. The work table is made of zinc, a metal which served as the forerunner to stainless steel; in front of it is a marble mortar used to crush various ingredients. Ice cut in winter from the local ponds kept the side rooms cool where food was stored, and facilitated a colder room for the assembling of confections. The kitchen and baking pantry each have one dumbwaiter that travels to the basement level where groceries were delivered and refuse removed.</p><br>
<h3>Second floor</h3><br>
<p>Mr. Vanderbilt&#39;s bedroom – As with the rest of the second floor, Ogden Codman designed this room, choosing Louis XIV Style. The bed is made of carved walnut and the mantel is of rouge royal marble, which hosts a large mirror above to bring more light into the room. There is much memorabilia of family and friends, though Cornelius Vanderbilt II lived only a year at the Breakers in good health, before dying the following year, 1899, of a stroke.</p><br>
<p>Mrs. Vanderbilts bedroom – A perfect oval, Alice Vanderbilts room has multiple doors connecting it to other bedrooms. Four closets allowed for her possible seven clothing changes per day, and a pager to administer and delegate family needs to the servants. This room also served as her study and had many bookshelves. Additionally, there are discreetly designed corridors that permitted female servants to maintain the laundry and costume needs of the family in a seemingly invisible fashion.</p><br>
<p>Miss Gertrude Vanderbilt&#39;s bedroom – Gertrude, daughter of Cornelius II and Alice, was a less conforming character who wished to be loved for her personality rather than her wealth and family; later she found her match in Harry Payne Whitney and became an artist. Multiple pieces of her artwork are featured in the room, including "The Engineer", which was inspired by her brother during World War I, "Laborer", and another that commemorates the American Expeditionary Force of World War I. She moved into The Breakers when she was 19. Above her bed is a portrait of her at age 5 by Raimundo de Madrazo y Garreta, and beside it, to the left of the bed, a sketch of her as a young woman.</p><br>
<p>Upper loggia – Opening east to the Atlantic, the upper loggia served as an informal living room. During the summer the glass doors overlooking the great hall could be opened to allow a breezeway. The walls are painted marble, and the ceiling is designed to depict three canopies covering the sky. The lawn, designed by James and Ernest Bowdwitch, hosted many parties and was well kept by a gardening staff of 20, who also introduced and maintained various non-indigenous trees.</p><br>
<p>Guest bedroom – This room exemplifies the Louis XVI style through furniture, woodwork and light fixtures, with Neoclassical style abounding in the interior. The wall paneling has never been retouched, though the rest of the room has been restored by the preservation society.</p><br>
<p>Countess Szechenyi&#39;s bedroom – Designed by Ogden Codman in 18th-century simple elegance style, this room features an ivory and cream-colored motif.</p><br>
<p>There are also two other rooms located on the second floor, possibly a nursery and a nanny&#39;s bedroom.</p><br>
<h3>Third floor</h3><br>
<p>The third floor contains eight bedrooms and a sitting room decorated in Louis XVI style walnut paneling by Ogden Codman. The north wing of the third-floor quarters were reserved for domestic servants. Using ceilings nearly 18 ft, Richard Morris Hunt created two separate third floors to allow a mass aggregation of servant bed chambers. This was because of the configuration of the house, built in Italian Renaissance style, which included a pitched roof. Flat-roofed French classical houses built in the area at the time allowed a concealed wing for staff, whereas the Breakers&#39; design did not permit this feature.</p><br>
<p>A total of 30 bedrooms are located in the two third-floor staff quarters. Three additional bedrooms for the butler, chef, and visiting valet are located on the mezzanine "entresol" floor, located between the first and second floor just to the rear of the main kitchen.</p><br>
<h3>Attic floor</h3><br>
<p>The attic floor contained more staff quarters, general storage areas, and the innovative cisterns. One smaller cistern supplied hydraulic pressure for the 1895 Otis elevator, still functioning in the house even though the house was wired for electricity in 1933. Two larger cisterns supplied fresh and salt water to the many bathrooms in the house.</p><br>
<p>Over the grand staircase is a stained glass skylight designed by artist John La Farge. Originally installed in the Vanderbilts&#39; 1 West 57th Street (New York City) townhouse dining room, the skylight was removed in 1894 during an expansion of that house.</p><br>
<h3>Materials</h3><br>
<p>Foundation: brick, concrete, and limestone</p><br>
<p>Trusses: steel</p><br>
<p>Walls: Indiana limestone</p><br>
<p>Roof: red terra cotta tile</p><br>
<p>Wall panels: platinum leaf (eight reliefs of mythological figures only)</p><br>
<p>Other: marble (plaques), wrought iron (gates and fences)</p><br>
<h3>The architect</h3><br>
<p>The Breakers was designed by Richard Morris Hunt, one of the country&#39;s most influential architects. It is regarded as</p><br>
<p>a definitive expression of American Beaux-Arts architecture. Hunt&#39;s final project, it is also one of his few surviving works, and is valued for its architectural excellence. The home made Hunt the "dean of American architecture", as he was called by his contemporaries, and helped define the Gilded Era in American history.</p><br>
<h2>Media</h2><br>
<p>The house makes an appearance at the end of the establishing shot of the 1990 American drama Reversal of Fortune, where it stands in as the Newport mansion of Sunny and Claus von Bulow, which was instead the nearby Clarendon Court.</p><br>
<p>The Music room was used in the HBO series The Gilded age (2022–present), the room was featured on the season 1 finale as the Russels&#39; ballroom when they threw coming out ball for their daughter Gladys.</p><br>
<h2>The Great Elephant Migration - A Coexistence Story</h2><br>
<p>Between July 2024 and July 2025, The Great Elephant Migration will display a herd of 100 elephants – sculpted from the vines of Lantana camara – across the United States. Various sites around Newport, Rhode Island – including The Breakers, Salve Regina, and other spaces along the Cliff Walk – will host the collection before it is moved to New York, Miami, Montana, and Los Angeles. Lantana camara is an invasive weed in India, and threatens elephants and other herd populations by restricting their access to more viable vegetation necessary for survival. By harvesting and making use of these weeds for the elephant sculptures, more than 200 indigenous artists are able to both promote and live a path of coexistence and conservation, and the funds raised by the sale of these elephants goes to help further that initiative.</p><br>
<p>Church Hill, also known as the St. John&#39;s Church Historic District, is an Old and Historic District in Richmond, Virginia. This district encompasses the original land plat of the city of Richmond. Church Hill is the eastern terminus of Broad Street, a major east-west thoroughfare in the Richmond metropolitan area. The name Church Hill is often used to describe both the specific historic district and the larger general area in the East End encompassing other neighborhoods such as Union Hill, Chimborazo, Fairmount, Peter Paul, Woodville, etc.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early United States, Civil War, and Revolution</h3><br>
<p>Church Hill is known for Chimborazo Park, where the largest American Civil War Hospital was located. It is also known as the site of Virginias second revolutionary convention, where Patrick Henry gave his "Give me liberty or give me death" speech in St. Johns Episcopal Church, Richmond, Virginia in 1775.</p><br>
<h3>20th Century</h3><br>
<p>On Friday, October 2, 1925, a 4,000-foot Chesapeake and Ohio railroad single track tunnel built during Reconstruction collapsed under Church Hill. The Church Hill Tunnel collapse occurred during refurbishment works, killing 3 or 4 and engulfing a work train complete with a 4-4-0 engine #231 and 10 flat cars. The tunnel was closed and filled-in after the collapse. In the July 2006, a coalition of officials and historical groups made plans to remove the buried engine. If recovered, it would be displayed at the Virginia Historical Society in Richmond. Some borings were made into the tunnel from above for examination by camera. Only murky water was found, whereupon further work was delayed by city permitting issues. The bricked-in entrance of the collapsed tunnel can still be seen at the south-east end of the alley just north of Marshall Street, on 18th Street.</p><br>
<p>Douglas Wilder, the first African American to have been elected governor of a USA state, was born and raised in Church Hill.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s, murder rates decreased overall in Richmond, Virginia, but instances of murder in Church Hill doubled.</p><br>
<h3>21st Century</h3><br>
<p>In recent years, Church Hill has undergone gentrification and now experiences much lower rates of crime than it did in the late 20th century.</p><br>
<p>Church Hill is home to many small businesses, including restaurants, bars, hair salons, and boutiques. In 2014, Church Hill was named one of the "" by Zagat. In 2015, Redfin included Church Hill in a roundup of —while Richmond was named #9 in their list of Top 10 Most Walkable Mid-Sized Cities.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation efforts</h2><br>
<p>The Church Hill neighborhood experienced serious physical decline during the 1950s, owing mostly to absentee landlords. The Historic Richmond Foundation was established in 1956 by Elisabeth Scott Bocock out of concern for "saving and enhancing the setting for St. Johns Church." In 1957, encouraged in large part by Historic Richmond, City Council created a historic district ordinance while simultaneously adopting the St. Johns Church Old and Historic District. The preservation of Church Hill marked the formal beginning of the preservation movement in Richmond.</p><br>
<h2>Notable Structures, Monuments and Parks</h2><br>
<p>St. John&#39;s Episcopal Church (Richmond, Virginia)</p><br>
<p>Adams Double House</p><br>
<p>Chimborazo Park</p><br>
<p>Elmira Shelton House</p><br>
<p>Jefferson Park</p><br>
<p>Libby Hill Park</p><br>
<p>Pohlig Brothers Building</p><br>
<p>Richmond Hill (a/k/a the Adams-Taylor House or Monte Maria)</p><br>
<p>Confederate Soldiers and Sailors Monument</p><br>
<p>St. John&#39;s Mews</p><br>
<p>Superior Warehouse</p><br>
<p>Woodward House</p><br>
<p>WRVA Building</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<p>The Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church is an historic church and congregation which is located at 419 South 6th Street in Center City Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. The congregation, founded in 1794, is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal congregation in the nation.</p><br>
<p>Its present church, completed in 1890, is the oldest church property in the United States to be continuously owned by African Americans. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>History of the congregation</h2><br>
<p>The church was proposed in 1791 by members of the Free African Society of Philadelphia, including Absalom Jones, out of a desire to create a space for autonomous African-American worship and community in the city. The desire to create the church was strengthened in 1792, after African-American members of St. George&#39;s Methodist Church walked out due to racial segregation in the worship services. Mother Bethel was one of the first African-American churches in the United States, dedicated July 29, 1794, by Bishop Francis Asbury.</p><br>
<p>On October 12, 1794, Reverend Robert Blackwell announced that the congregation was received in full fellowship in the Methodist Episcopal Church.</p><br>
<p>In 1816, Rev. Richard Allen brought together other black Methodist congregations from the region to organize the new African Methodist Episcopal Church denomination. He was elected bishop of this denomination. After the American Civil War, its missionaries went to the South to help freedmen and planted many new churches in the region.</p><br>
<p>In 1838, the building was damaged during the riots that followed the destruction of Pennsylvania Hall.</p><br>
<p>Allen and his wife, Sarah Allen are both buried in the present church&#39;s crypt. The current church building was constructed in 1888–1890, and it has been designated a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>On October 25, 2009, "The Great Gathering" took place at St. Georges Church in which the community of Mother Bethel AME and St. Georges congregations gathered for Sunday worship at St. George&#39;s for the first time since the historic walkout. The Rev. Dr. Mark Kelly Tyler preached for this service.</p><br>
<h2>Building history</h2><br>
<p>The property was acquired for the new congregation in 1794. Its first building was a frame structure originally used as a blacksmith&#39;s shop, which was hauled to the site.</p><br>
<p>This building was later replaced by frame structures in 1805 and 1841. The 1841 church was reported to have a tunnel connecting it with a nearby Quaker meetinghouse to facilitate the movements of fugitive slaves.</p><br>
<p>The present building, which was completed in 1890, is a three-story masonry structure with Romanesque styling. Its large round-arch windows are adorned with stained glass from Germany.</p><br>
<p>Mother Bethel AME Church Historical Marker 6th and Lombard Sts Philadelphia PA (DSC 3511).jpgMother Bethel A.M.E. Church Historical Marker</p><br>
<p>Mother Bethel AME Church 6th and Lombard Sts Philadelphia PA (DSC 3514).jpgNational Historic Landmark Plaque</p><br>
<p>Mother Bethel AME Church 6th and Lombard Sts Philadelphia PA (DSC 3515).jpgRichard Allen Historic Plaque</p><br>
<p>Free African Society Historical Marker 6th and Lombard Sts Philadelphia PA (DSC 3149).jpgFree African Society Historical Marker</p><br>
<p>Drakes Bay  is a wide bay named so by USA surveyor George Davidson in 1875 along the Point Reyes National Seashore on the coast of northern California in the United States, approximately northwest of San Francisco at approximately 38 degrees north latitude. The bay is approximately wide. It is formed on the lee side of the coastal current by Point Reyes. The bay is named after Sir Francis Drake and has long been considered Drake&#39;s most likely landing spot on the west coast of North America during his circumnavigation of the world by sea in 1579. An alternative name for this bay is Puerto De Los Reyes.</p><br>
<p>The bay is fed by Drake&#39;s Estero, an expansive estuary on the Point Reyes peninsula. The estuary is protected by Estero de Limantour State Marine Reserve & Drakes Estero State Marine Conservation Area. Point Reyes State Marine Reserve & Point Reyes State Marine Conservation Area lie within Drakes Bay. Like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.</p><br>
<p>A portion of the coastal area of Drakes Bay is archaeologically and historically important. It is believed to be the site of Francis Drake&#39;s 1579 landfall (which he called New Albion), and also the location where a Spanish Manila galleon sank during a storm in 1595. Both Drake and the Portuguese commander of the galleon, Sebastião Rodrigues Soromenho, interacted with the local Coast Miwok. There are fifteen archaeological sites on the bay of Miwok settlements where European trade goods have been found, including materials that the Miwok probably recovered from the wrecked galleon. The region was designated a National Historic Landmark District on October 17, 2012.</p><br>
<p>Bodega Bay  is a shallow, rocky inlet of the Pacific Ocean on the coast of northern California in the United States. It is approximately 5 mi across and is located approximately 40 mi northwest of San Francisco and 20 mi west of Santa Rosa. The bay straddles the boundary between Sonoma County to the north and Marin County to the south. The bay is a marine habitat used for navigation, recreation , and commercial and sport fishing .</p><br>
<p>Bodega Bay is protected on its north end from the Pacific Ocean by Bodega Head, which shelters the small Bodega Harbor and is separated from the main bay by a jetty. The San Andreas Fault runs parallel to the coastline and bisects Bodega Head, which lies on the Pacific Plate; the town is on the North American Plate. The village of Bodega Bay sits on the east side of Bodega Harbor. The bay connects on its south end to the mouth of Tomales Bay.</p><br>
<p>Streams flowing into Bodega Bay include the Estero de San Antonio and the Americano Creek.</p><br>
<p>Accessible beaches on Bodega Bay include Doran Regional Park (on the jetty) and Pinnacle Gulch.</p><br>
<p>Apart from the harbor, all of Bodega Bay lies within the boundaries of the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Coast Miwok Native Americans lived on the shores of Bodega Bay. Documented village names include: Helapattai, Hime-takala, Ho-takala, and Tokau.</p><br>
<p>There is speculation that Bodega Bay may have been Sir Francis Drake&#39;s Nova Albion landing location on the California coast.</p><br>
<p>Bodega Bay was first charted by Europeans in 1775 by the Spanish Peruvian explorer Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra of the Spanish Navy. The bay that was originally named for him was not present day Bodega Bay, but Tomales Bay. His ship, the Sonora, anchored in the lee of Tomales Point on October 3, 1775, departing the next day. Bodega y Quadra named Tomales Bay Puerto de la Bodega. "There is no evidence in the journal or on the charts that Bodega y Quadra ever saw the entrance to Bodega Harbor or knew of the lagoon to the north". Bodega y Quadra planned to return, but was not able to. Later, as commandant of the naval base at San Blas, New Spain, Bodega y Quadra sent other expeditions to Bodega Bay with the intention of establishing a colony and mission there. It was decided, however, that the location was not ideal.</p><br>
<p>The first Russians to see Bodega Bay were the Russian-American Company (RAC) supervisors of the Aleut hunting parties aboard the American maritime fur trade sea otter hunting ship Peacock in 1807. Timofei Nikitich Tarakanov of the RAC returned to Novo Arkhangelsk, Alaska, and reported the location to Alexander Andreyevich Baranov, the chief administrator of the RAC. Baranov instructed his assistant Ivan Kuskov to survey the area for a settlement. Kuskov, the Commerce Counselor of the RAC sailing in the Kodiak (also transliterated as Kadiak and Kadiak), entered Bodega Bay on January 8, 1809. Temporary buildings were erected to house the ships complement of 190 crew (130 native Alaskan males, 20 native females, and 40 Russians).</p><br>
<p>The Kodiak remained in Bodega Bay until October, 1809, returning to Alaska with more than 2,000 sea otter pelts. Kuskov returned to Novo Arkhangelsk, reporting abundant fur bearing mammals, fish, timber and tillable lands. Baranov instructed Kuskov to return and establish a permanent settlement in the area. In 1811, Kuskov returned, this time aboard the Chirikov, but found fewer otter in Bodega Bay (1,160 otter skins were taken). Three American ships were also operating in the area from a base in Drake&#39;s Bay, sending hunters into San Francisco Bay and the surrounding bays.</p><br>
<p>Kuskov sailed the brig Chirikov back to present day Bodega Harbor on March 15, 1812.</p><br>
<p>Zaliv Rumyantsev (Rumyantsev Bay, also transliterated "Rumiantsov" and "Rumiantsev") appears on the earliest Russian charts of Bodega Bay (1817–1819) identifying present day Bodega Bay and Bodega Harbor. Bodega Head was named Mouis Rumyantsev (Point Rumyantsev). Tomales Point was named Point Great Bodega and Tomales Bay Great Bodega Bay, more or less conforming to Bodega y Quadra&#39;s original naming.</p><br>
<p>On his return trip, Kuskov found the otter population scarce in Bodega Bay, and the harbor being frequented by numerous American and British otter-hunting expeditions. After exploring the area, they ended up selecting a place 15 mi north that the native Kashaya Pomo people called Mad shui nui or Metini. Metini, the seasonal home of the native Kashaya Pomo people, had a modest anchorage and abundant natural resources and would become the Russian settlement of Fort Ross.</p><br>
<p>By 1817, sea otters in this area were practically eliminated by international over-hunting. Zaliv Rumyantsev continued to be the main entrepôt for the Russian Colony until January 1842, and the earliest European structures built at Bodega Bay were the RAC wharf, warehouse, and barracks.</p><br>
<p>After the Mexican–American War and the 1848 Mexican Cession Bodega Bay became United States territory. It remained an active harbor for shipping lumber until the 1870s, when the North Pacific Coast Railroad was built, bypassing the coast in favor of a more inland route.</p><br>
<p>A plan by Pacific Gas & Electric to build a nuclear power plant received significant negative attention from local citizens, beginning in 1958. By 1964, the plans for the plant were abandoned.</p><br>
<p>Bodega Bay was the setting for the 1963 Alfred Hitchcock film The Birds starring Rod Taylor, Tippi Hedren and Suzanne Pleshette.</p><br>
<p>In October, 2017, Bodega Bay, on the northwest edge of Sonoma County, served as a site of refuge and supply depot for evacuees who are escaping from a historic, fast-moving, destructive fire in northern California, especially residents from that area. People from Santa Rosa and other regions affected by the raging wildfire started pouring in not long after the blazes started.</p><br>
<h2>Marine protected areas near Bodega Bay</h2><br>
<p>Like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.</p><br>
<p>Russian River State Marine Reserve and Russian River State Marine Conservation Area</p><br>
<p>Bodega Head State Marine Reserve & Bodega Head State Marine Conservation Area</p><br>
<p>Estero Americano State Marine Recreational Management Area</p><br>
<p>Estero de San Antonio State Marine Recreational Management Area</p><br>
<p>West Potomac Park is a USA national park in Washington, D.C., adjacent to the National Mall. It includes the parkland that extends south of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, from the Lincoln Memorial to the grounds of the Washington Monument. The park is the site of several national landmarks including the Korean War Veterans Memorial, Jefferson Memorial, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, George Mason Memorial, and the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial.</p><br>
<p>The park includes the surrounding land on the shore of the Tidal Basin, an artificial inlet of the Potomac River which was created in the 19th century, an inlet that links the Potomac with the northern end of the Washington Channel.</p><br>
<p>West Potomac Park is administered by National Mall and Memorial Parks, an administrative unit of the National Park Service&#39;s National Capital Parks.</p><br>
<h2>Creation of the park</h2><br>
<p>Almost none of the National Mall west of the Washington Monument grounds and below Constitution Avenue NW existed prior to 1882. After terrible flooding inundated much of downtown Washington, D.C., in 1881, Congress ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to dredge a deep channel in the Potomac and use the material to fill in the Potomac (creating the current banks of the river) and raise much of the land near the White House and along Pennsylvania Avenue NW by nearly 6 ft. In the process, the nearby Babcock Lakes, a series of small ponds, were filled in. This "reclaimed land" — which included West Potomac Park, East Potomac Park, the Tidal Basin — was largely complete by 1890, and designated Potomac Park by Congress in 1897. Congress first appropriated money for the beautification of the reclaimed land in 1902, which led to the planting of sod, bushes, and trees; grading and paving of sidewalks, bridle paths, and driveways; and the installation of water, drainage, and sewage pipes.</p><br>
<h2>Cherry trees</h2><br>
<p>The famous sakura Japanese cherry trees of Washington, D.C., line the Tidal Basin and are the main attraction at the National Cherry Blossom Festival in early spring, when the cherry blossoms bloom. Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore, upon returning to Washington, D.C., from a visit to Japan, initiated the idea of cherry trees in Washington, D.C., She approached the Superintendent of Public Building and Grounds, then Colonel Spencer Cosby, about the idea in 1885. Her idea was rejected; over the next 24 years, Scidmore approached every new superintendent, but the idea was never authorized.</p><br>
<p>In 1906, Dr. David Fairchild, a botanist who worked for the USA Department of Agriculture, imported 75 flowering cherry trees and 25 single-flowered weeping types from the Yokohama Nursery Company in Japan. Fairchild planted these trees on a hillside on his own property in Chevy Chase, Maryland, testing their hardiness in the Washington area. In 1907, pleased with the success of the trees, Fairchild and his wife began to promote Japanese flowering cherry trees as the ideal type of tree to plant along avenues in the Washington area. Friends of family also became interested, and on September 26, arrangements were completed with the Chevy Chase Land Company to order 300 Oriental cherry trees for the Chevy Chase area.</p><br>
<p>In 1908, Fairchild gave cherry saplings to boys from each school in the District to plant in schoolyards on Arbor Day. In closing his Arbor Day speech, Fairchild expressed a vision that the "Speedway" (the present day corridor of Independence Avenue in West Potomac Park) be transformed into a Field of Cherries. In attendance was Eliza Scidmore, who afterwards he referred to as a great authority on Japan. In 1909, Scidmore decided to try to raise the money required to purchase the cherry trees and then donate the trees to the city. Scidmore sent a note outlining her new plan to the new First Lady, Helen Herron Taft&mdash;the wife of President William Howard Taft&mdash; who had once lived in Japan and was familiar with the beauty of the flowering cherry trees. Two days later, the First Lady responded:</p><br>
<p>On April 8, the day after Taft&#39;s letter, Dr. Jōkichi Takamine, the Japanese chemist famous as the discoverer of adrenaline and takadiastase, was in Washington, D.C., with Midzuno, the Japanese consul in New York City. When told Washington was to have Japanese cherry trees planted along the Speedway, he asked whether the First Lady would accept a donation of an additional 2,000 trees. Midzuno thought it was a fine idea and suggested the trees be given in the name of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Takamine and Midzuno met with the Helen Taft, who accepted the offer.</p><br>
<p>On April 13, five days after the First Lady&#39;s request, the Superintendent of Public Building and Grounds ordered the purchase of 90 cherry trees (Prunus serrulata) of the Fugenzo variety from Hoopes Brothers and Thomas Company in West Chester, Pennsylvania. The trees were planted along the Potomac River from the present site of the Lincoln Memorial south toward East Potomac Park. After planting, it was discovered that the trees were not correctly named, and were not of the Fugenzo variety, but instead of the Shirofugen cultivar (cultivated variety). These trees have since disappeared.</p><br>
<p>Four months later, on August 30, the Japanese embassy informed the USA Department of State that Tokyo intended to donate 2,000 cherry trees to the United States to be planted along the Potomac River. On December 10, the trees arrived in Seattle, and on January 6, 1910 arrived in the capital. However, an inspection team for the Department of Agriculture discovered to everyone&#39;s dismay that the trees were infested with insects, roundworms, and plant diseases. To protect American growers, the department concluded that the trees must be destroyed. On January 28, Taft gave permission to destroy the trees, and they were burned. This diplomatic setback resulted in letters from Secretary of State and the representatives to the Japanese ambassador, expressing deep regret of all concerned. Dr. Takamine, meeting the bad news with goodwill, again donated the costs for the trees in 1912, whose number he now increased to 3,020. The seeds for these trees were taken in December 1910 from the famous collection on the bank of the Arakawa River in Adachi Ward, a suburb of Tokyo, and grafted on specially selected understock produced in Itami City in Hyōgo Prefecture.</p><br>
<p>The National Park Service cut 158 of the nearly 3,700 trees in 2024 to rebuild a seawall around the Tidal Basin to strengthen it to withstand sea level rise and more extreme rain events.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The West Potomac Rugby Football Club&#39;s match and practice pitch is located in the park.</p><br>
<h2>Map of West Potomac Park</h2><br>
<p>Also in the park are the District of Columbia War Memorial, George Mason Memorial, John Paul Jones Memorial, John Ericsson Memorial, The Arts of War and The Arts of Peace sculptures, the Japanese Pagoda and Lantern statues, the First Air Mail Marker, and the Cuban Friendship Urn.</p><br>
<p>The Rocky Flats Plant was a United States manufacturing complex that produced nuclear weapons parts in the western United States, near Denver, Colorado. The facility&#39;s primary mission was the fabrication of plutonium pits, which were shipped to other facilities to be assembled into nuclear weapons. Operated from 1952 to 1992, the complex was under the control of the USA Atomic Energy Commission , succeeded by the Department of Energy  in 1977.</p><br>
<p>Plutonium pit production was halted in 1989 after EPA and FBI agents raided the facility and the plant was formally shut down in 1992. Operators of the plant (Rockwell) later pled guilty to criminal violations of environmental law. At the time, the fine was one of the largest penalties ever in an environmental law case.</p><br>
<p>Cleanup began in the early 1990s, and the site achieved regulatory closure in 2006. The cleanup effort decommissioned and demolished over 800 structures; removed over 21 tons of weapons-grade material; removed over 1.3 million cubic meters of waste; and treated more than 16 e6usgal of water. Four groundwater treatment systems were also constructed. Today, the Rocky Flats Plant is gone. The site of the former facility consists of two distinct areas: (1) the "Central Operable Unit" (including the former industrial area), which remains off-limits to the public as a CERCLA "Superfund" site, owned and managed by the USA Department of Energy, and (2) the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge, owned and managed by the USA Fish and Wildlife Service. The Refuge (also known as the "Peripheral Operable Unit") was determined to be suitable for unrestricted use. Every five years, the USA Department of Energy, USA Environmental Protection Agency, and Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment review environmental data and other information to assess whether the remedy is functioning as intended. The latest Five-Year Review for the site, released in August 2022, concluded the site remedy is protective of human health and the environment. However, a protectiveness deferred determination was made for PFAS.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>1950s</h3><br>
<p>Following World War II, the United States increased production of nuclear weapons. The AEC chose the Dow Chemical Company to manage the production facility. A 4 square miles site about 15 mi northwest of Denver on a windy plateau called Rocky Flats was chosen for the facility. On July 10, 1951, Ground was broken on the first building in the facility. Contemporary news reports stated that the site would not be used to produce nuclear bombs, but might be used to produce uranium and plutonium components for use in nuclear weapons.</p><br>
<p>In 1953, the plant began production of bomb components, manufacturing plutonium pits which were used at the Pantex plant in Amarillo, Texas to assemble fission weapons and the primary stages of thermonuclear weapons. By 1957, the plant had expanded to 27 buildings.</p><br>
<p>On September 11, 1957, a plutonium fire occurred in one of the gloveboxes used to handle radioactive materials, igniting the combustible rubber gloves and plexiglas windows of the box. Metallic plutonium is a fire hazard and pyrophoric; under the right conditions it may ignite in air at room temperature. The accident resulted in the contamination of Building 771, the release of plutonium into the atmosphere, and caused $818,600 in damage. An incinerator for plutonium-contaminated waste was installed in Building 771 in 1958.</p><br>
<h3>1960s</h3><br>
<p>Throughout the 1960s, the plant continued to enlarge and add buildings. The 1960s also brought more contamination to the site. In 1967, 3,500 barrels of plutonium-contaminated lubricants and solvents had accumulated on Pad 903. A large number of them were found to be leaking, and low-level contaminated soil was becoming wind-borne from this area. At least some of the leakage had been detected as early as 1962. This pad was covered with gravel and paved over with asphalt in 1969.</p><br>
<p>On May 11, 1969, there was a major fire in a glovebox in Building 776/777. This was likely the costliest industrial accident to occur in the United States up to that time (pre-EPA). Cleanup from the accident took two years. The follow-up accident analysis led to safety upgrades on the site, including fire sprinkler systems and firewalls.</p><br>
<h3>1970s</h3><br>
<p>In order to reduce the danger of public contamination and to create a security area around the plant following protests, the United States Congress authorized the purchase of a 4,600 acre buffer zone around the plant in 1972. In 1973, nearby Walnut Creek (Colorado) and the Great Western Reservoir were found to have elevated tritium levels. The tritium was determined to have been released from contaminated materials shipped to Rocky Flats from the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. Discovery of the contamination by the Colorado Department of Health led to investigations by the AEC and United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). As a result of the investigation, several mitigation efforts were put in place to prevent further contamination. Some of the elements included channeling of wastewater runoff to three dams for testing before release into the water system and construction of a reverse osmosis facility to clean up wastewater.</p><br>
<p>The next year, elevated plutonium levels were found in the topsoil near the now covered Pad 903. An additional 4,500 acre of buffer zone were purchased.</p><br>
<p>1975 saw Rockwell International replacing Dow Chemical as the contractor for the site. This year also saw local landowners suing for property contamination caused by the plant.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, 60 protesters belonging to the Rocky Flats Truth Force, or Satyagraha Affinity Group, based in Boulder, Colorado, were arrested for trespassing at Rocky Flats, and were brought to trial before Judge Kim Goldberger. Dr. John Candler Cobb, Professor of Preventive Medicine at the University of Colorado Medical Center, testified that the most significant danger of radioactive contamination came from the 1967 incident in which oil barrels containing plutonium leaked 5,000 USgal of oil into sand under the barrels, which was then blown by strong winds as far away as Denver.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Carl Johnson, Jefferson County health director from 1973 to 1981, directed numerous studies on contamination levels and health risks the plant posed to public health. Based on his conclusions, Johnson opposed housing development near Rocky Flats. He was fired for opposing home development in contaminated areas. He later won a whistleblower lawsuit against Jefferson County, Colorado. Kristen Iversen, author of Full Body Burden: Growing Up in the Nuclear Shadow of Rocky Flats, contends later studies confirmed many of his findings.</p><br>
<p>In 1985, after hearing from various experts, the USA District Court for the District Court of Colorado found the results of Dr. Carl Johnson&#39;s study were "unreliable because the reported relationship seems implausible given the latency period for the types of cancer reported and because the excess cancers are different from the types of cancers expected to result from internally deposited plutonium." In addition, the court agreed with the Colorado State epidemiologist that "no measurable increases in cancer incidence resulting from operations at Rocky Flats have been demonstrated by any appropriate scientific method." Subsequent and ongoing studies indicate likely ongoing contamination and health issues. To date, there has never been an epidemiological study of people who lived or live near the Rocky Flats site.</p><br>
<p>On April 28, 1979, a few weeks after the Three Mile Island accident, a crowd of close to 15,000 protesters assembled at a nearby site. Singers Jackson Browne and Bonnie Raitt took the stage along with various speakers. The following day, 286 protesters including Daniel Ellsberg were arrested for civil disobedience/trespassing on the Rocky Flats facility.</p><br>
<h3>1980s</h3><br>
<p>On December 11, 1980, Congress enacted the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, which provided the authority to respond directly to releases or threatened releases at the nation&#39;s worst environmental sites.</p><br>
<p>Dark Circle is a 1982 American documentary film that focuses on the Rocky Flats Plant and its plutonium contamination of the area&#39;s environment. The film won the Grand Prize for documentary at the Sundance Film Festival and received a national Emmy Award for "Outstanding individual achievement in news and documentary".</p><br>
<p>Rocky Flats became a focus of protest by peace activists throughout the 1980s. In 1983, a demonstration was organized that brought together 17,000 people who joined hands in an encirclement around the 17 mi perimeter of the plant.</p><br>
<p>A perimeter security zone was installed around the facility in 1983 and was upgraded with remote detection abilities in 1985. Also in 1983, the first radioactive waste was processed through the aqueous recovery system, creating a plutonium button.</p><br>
<p>A celebration of 250,000 continuous safe hours by the employees at Rocky Flats happened in 1985. The same year, Rockwell received Industrial Research Magazine&#39;s IR-100 award for a process to remove actinide contamination from wastewater at the plant. The next year, the site received a National Safety Council Award of Honor for outstanding safety performance.</p><br>
<p>By 1986 over 5,500 workers were employed at the site, and were represented by the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union (OCAW).</p><br>
<p>In 1986, the State of Colorados Public Health Department, EPA, and DOE entered into a compliance agreement with the goal of bringing the facility into compliance with RCRA and Colorado Hazardous Waste Act permitting, generator, and waste management requirements. The agreement also initiated a process for investigating and remediating environmental contamination. In addition, the agreement established a framework addressing DOEs mixed-waste.</p><br>
<p>On August 10, 1987, 320 demonstrators were arrested after they tried to force a one-day shutdown of the Rocky Flats nuclear weapons plant.</p><br>
<p>In 1988, a Department of Energy (DOE) safety evaluation resulted in a report that was critical of safety measures at the plant. The EPA fined the plant for polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) leaks from a transformer. A solid waste form, called pondcrete, was found not to have cured properly and was leaking from containers. A boxcar of transuranic waste from the site was refused entry into Idaho and returned to the plant. Plans to potentially close the plant were released.</p><br>
<p>In 1989 an employee left a faucet running, resulting in chromic acid being released into the sanitary water system. The Colorado Department of Health and the EPA both posted full-time personnel at the plant to monitor safety. Plutonium production was suspended due to safety violations.</p><br>
<p>In August 1989, an estimated 3,500 people turned out for a demonstration at Rocky Flats.</p><br>
<h4>FBI/EPA investigation, June 1989 raid</h4><br>
<p>In 1987, plant insiders started to covertly inform the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) about the unsafe conditions. In December 1988, the FBI commenced clandestine flights of light aircraft over the area and confirmed via infrared video recordings that the "outdated and unpermitted" Building 771 incinerator was apparently being used late into the night. After several months of collecting evidence both from workers and via direct measurement in 1989, the FBI informed the DOE on June 6 that they wanted to meet to discuss a potential terrorist threat.</p><br>
<p>On June 6, 1989, the United States District Court for the District Court of Colorado issued a search warrant to the FBI, based in part on information collected by Colorado Department of Health (now CDPHE) inspectors during the 1980s. Dubbed "Operation Desert Glow", the raid, sponsored by the United States Department of Justice (DOJ), began at 9 a.m. on June 6. After arriving in the meeting room, the FBI agents revealed the true reason for the meeting to stunned DOE and Rockwell officials, including Dominic Sanchini, Rockwell International&#39;s manager of Rocky Flats, who died the next year in Boulder of cancer. The FBI discovered numerous violations of federal anti-pollution laws, including limited contamination of water and soil. In 1992, Rockwell International was charged with environmental crimes, including violations of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Clean Water Act. Rockwell pleaded guilty and paid an $18.5 million fine. This was the largest fine for an environmental crime to that date.</p><br>
<p>After the FBI raid, federal authorities used the subsequent grand jury investigation to gather evidence of wrongdoing and then sealed the record. In October 2006, DOE announced completion of the Rocky Flats cleanup without this information being available.</p><br>
<p>The FBI raid led to the formation of Colorado&#39;s first special grand jury in 1989, the juried testimony of 110 witnesses, reviews of 2,000 exhibits, and ultimately a 1992 plea agreement in which Rockwell admitted to 10 federal environmental crimes and agreed to pay $18.5 million in fines out of its own funds. This amount was less than the company had been paid in bonuses for running the plant as determined by the Government Accounting Office (GAO), and yet was also by far the highest hazardous-waste fine ever; four times larger than the previous record. Due to indemnification of nuclear contractors, without some form of settlement being arrived at between the USA Justice Department and Rockwell, the cost of paying any civil penalties would ultimately have been borne by USA taxpayers. While any criminal penalties allotted to Rockwell would not have been covered, for its part Rockwell claimed that the Department of Energy had specifically exempted them from most environmental laws, including hazardous waste.</p><br>
<p>Regardless, and as forewarned by the prosecuting USA Attorney, Ken Fimberg/Scott, the Department of Justices stated findings and plea agreement with Rockwell were heavily contested by its own, 23-member special grand jury. Press leaks on both sides—members of the DOJ and the grand jury—occurred in violation of secrecy regarding grand jury information, a federal crime punishable by a prison sentence. The public contest led to USA Congressional oversight committee hearings chaired by Congressman Howard Wolpe, which issued subpoenas to DOJ principals despite several instances of DOJs refusal to comply. The hearings, whose findings include that the Justice Department had "bargained away the truth", ultimately still did not fully reveal to the public the special grand jury&#39;s report, which remains sealed by the DOJ courts.</p><br>
<p>The special grand jury report was nonetheless leaked to Westword. According to its subsequent publications, the Rocky Flats special grand jury had compiled indictments charging three DOE officials and five Rockwell employees with environmental crimes. The grand jury also wrote a report, intended for the publics consumption per their charter, lambasting the conduct of DOE and Rocky Flats contractors for "engaging in a continuing campaign of distraction, deception and dishonesty" and noted that Rocky Flats, for many years, had discharged pollutants, hazardous materials and radioactive matter into nearby creeks and Broomfields and Westminster&#39;s water supplies.</p><br>
<p>The DOE itself, in a study released in December of the year prior to the FBI raid, had called Rocky Flats&#39; ground water the single greatest environmental hazard at any of its nuclear facilities.</p><br>
<h4>Sealed grand jury records</h4><br>
<p>Court records from the grand jury proceeding on Rocky Flats have been sealed for a number of years. The Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, which govern federal grand jury proceedings, explicitly require grand jury proceedings to be kept secret unless otherwise provided by the Rules. Rocky Flats&#39; secret grand jury proceedings were not unique.</p><br>
<p>However, some activists dispute the reasons for records confidentiality: Dr. LeRoy Moore, a Boulder theologian and peace activist; retired FBI Special Agent Jon Lipsky,</p><br>
<p>Former grand jury foreman McKinley chronicles his experiences in the 2004 book he co-authored with attorney Caron Balkany, The Ambushed Grand Jury, which begins with an open letter to the USA Congress from Special Agent Lipsky:</p><br>
<p>However, a former EPA employee and Jon Lipsky&#39;s partner disputes these claims: "Jon kind of went off the deep end," and "He started seeing conspiracy theories in everything."</p><br>
<h3>1990s</h3><br>
<p>Rockwell International was replaced by EG&G as primary contractor for the Rocky Flats plant. EG&G began an aggressive work safety and cleanup plan for the site that included construction of a system to remove contamination from the groundwater of the site. The Sierra Club vs. Rockwell case was decided in favor of the Sierra Club. The ruling directed Rocky Flats to manage plutonium residues as hazardous waste.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, an interagency agreement between DOE, the Colorado Department of Health, and the EPA outlined multiyear schedules for environmental restoration studies and remediation activities. DOE released a report that advocated downsizing the plant&#39;s production into a more streamlined facility. Due to the fall of the Soviet Union, production of most of the systems at Rocky Flats was no longer needed, leaving only the W88 warhead primary stages.</p><br>
<p>In 1992, due to an order by President G. H. W. Bush, production of submarine-based missiles using the W88 trigger was discontinued, leading to the layoff of 4,500 employees at the plant; 4,000 others were retained for long-term cleanup of the facility. The Rocky Flats Plant Transition Plan outlined the environmental restoration process. The DOE announced that 61 lb of plutonium lined the exhaust ductwork in six buildings on the site.</p><br>
<p>Starting in 1993, weapons-grade plutonium began to be shipped to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Savannah River Site.</p><br>
<p>In 1994 the site was renamed the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site, reflecting the changed nature of the site from weapon production to environmental cleanup and restoration. The cleanup effort was contracted to the Kaiser-Hill Company, which proposed the release of 4,100 acre of the buffer zone for public access.</p><br>
<p>In 1998, the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment&#39;s Cancer Registry conducted an independent study of cancer rates in areas around the Rocky Flats Site. Data showed no pattern of increased cancers tied to Rocky Flats.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the remainder of the 1990s and into the 2000s, cleanup of contaminated sites and dismantling of contaminated buildings continued with the waste materials being shipped to the Nevada Test Site, the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in New Mexico, and the Envirocare company facility in Utah, which is now EnergySolutions.</p><br>
<h3>2000s</h3><br>
<p>In 2001, Congress passed the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge Act. In July 2007, the USA Department of Energy transferred nearly 4,000 acre of land on the Rocky Flats site to the USA Fish and Wildlife Service to establish the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge. Surveys of the site reveal 630 species of vascular plants, 76% of which are native. Herds of elk are commonly seen on the site. However, the DOE retained the central area of the site, the Central Operable Unit.</p><br>
<p>The last contaminated building was removed and the last weapons-grade plutonium was shipped out in 2003, ending the cleanup based on a modified cleanup agreement. The modified agreement required a higher level of cleanup in the first 3 ft of soil in exchange for not having to remove any contamination below that point unless it posed a chance of migrating to the surface or contaminating the groundwater. About half of the 800 buildings previously existing on the site had been dismantled by early December 2004. By 2006, over 800 buildings had been decommissioned and demolished, with no buildings remaining. Today, the plant and all buildings are gone.</p><br>
<p>The site is contaminated with residual plutonium due to several industrial fires that occurred on the site and other inadvertent releases caused by wind at a waste storage area. The other major contaminant is carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Both of these substances affected areas adjacent to the site. In addition, there were small releases of beryllium and tritium, as well as dioxin from incineration.</p><br>
<p>Cleanup was declared complete on October 13, 2005. About 1,300 acre of the original site, the former industrial area, remains under USA DOE Office of Legacy Management control for ongoing environmental monitoring and remediation. On March 14, 2007, DOE, EPA, and CDPHE entered into the Rocky Flats Legacy Management Agreement (RFLMA). The agreement establishes the regulatory framework for implementing the final remedy for the Rocky Flats site and ensuring the protection of human health and the environment.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, because the Peripheral Operable Unit was found to be suitable for unlimited use and unrestricted exposure, EPA posted public notice of its intent to delete this area (now largely the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge) from the EPA&#39;s National Priorities List of CERCLA or "Superfund" sites. The Peripheral Operable Unit was subsequently removed from the National Priorities List.</p><br>
<h3>2010s</h3><br>
<p>In September 2010, after a 20-year legal battle, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed a $926 million award in a class-action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and Rockwell International. The three-judge panel said that the jury reached its decision on faulty instructions that incorrectly stated the law. The appeals court tossed the jury verdict and sent the case back to the District Court. According to the Appellate Court, the owners of 12,000 properties in the class-action area had not proved their properties were damaged or that they suffered bodily injury from plutonium that blew onto their properties.</p><br>
<p>In response to historic and ongoing reports of health issues by people who live and lived near Rocky Flats, an online health survey was launched in May 2016 by Metropolitan State University, Rocky Flats Downwinders, and other local universities and health agencies to survey thousands of Coloradans who lived east of the Rocky Flats plant while it was operational.</p><br>
<p>On May 19, 2016, a $375 million settlement was reached over claims by more than 15,000 nearby homeowners that plutonium releases from the plant risked their health and devalued their property. This settlement ended a 26-year legal battle between residents and the two corporations that ran the Rocky Flats Plant, Dow Chemical and Rockwell International, for the Department of Energy.</p><br>
<p>June 2014 marked a quarter century since the historic FBI and EPA raid of the Rocky Flats plant. A 3-day weekend of events from Friday, June 6 through Sunday, June 8 took place at the Arvada Center for the Arts, "Rocky Flats Then and Now: 25 Years After the Raid". Panel discussions covered various aspects of the Rocky Flats raid and its aftermath. On display were historical photographs and artifacts, as well as Rocky Flats-inspired art.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environments Cancer Registry completed a cancer incidence study that looked at the incidence of reported cancers in areas around Rocky Flats from 1990 to 2014. This study followed-up on and was modeled after CDPHEs original Rocky Flats cancer incidence study, which was completed in 1998. Ten cancers specifically linked to plutonium exposure and other cancers of concern to a Health Advisory Panel were assessed in 1998, and again in 2016. The study found "the incidence of all cancers-combined for both adults and children was no different in the communities surrounding Rocky Flats than would be expected based on cancer rates in the remainder of the Denver Metro area for 1990 to 2014."</p><br>
<p>In 2017, the CDPHE Cancer Registry completed a supplement to this study that specifically looked at the incidence of thyroid and rare cancers in neighborhoods around Rocky Flats. Cancer incidence data showed "no evidence of higher than expected frequencies of thyroid cancer" and "the incidence of rare cancer was not higher than expected compared to the remainder of the Denver Metro area."</p><br>
<p>In 2018, Metropolitan State University of Denver declined to further participate in the Downwinders&#39; health survey.</p><br>
<p>In January 2019, activist groups questioning the contamination risk assessment for the wildlife refuge filed a lawsuit to unseal documents from the grand jury investigation.</p><br>
<p>In response to concerned citizens reports about a breast cancer cluster in young women, CDPHEs Central Cancer Registry also examined the incidence of breast cancer in young women in communities around Rocky Flats. The Cancer Registry maintains a statewide database of all cancers diagnosed in Colorado residents (with some skin cancer exceptions). Hospitals, physicians, and laboratories are required by law to report medically confirmed cancer data to CDPHE. In October 2019, CDPHE shared the Cancer Registrys findings. The Cancer Registry concluded, based on an analysis of the data, that "no increased incidence of breast cancer was found in young women in communities around Rocky Flats."</p><br>
<p>Erasmus Hall High School was a four-year public high school located at 899–925 Flatbush Avenue between Church and Snyder Avenues in the Flatbush neighborhood of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. It was founded in 1786 as Erasmus Hall Academy, a private institution of higher learning named for the scholar Desiderius Erasmus, known as Erasmus of Rotterdam, a Dutch Renaissance humanist and Catholic Christian theologian. The school was the first secondary school chartered by the New York State Regents. The clapboard-sided, Georgian-Federal-style building, constructed on land donated by the Flatbush Reformed Dutch Church, was turned over to the public school system in 1896.</p><br>
<p>Around the start of the 20th century, Brooklyn experienced a rapidly growing population, and the original small school was enlarged with the addition of several wings and the purchase of several nearby buildings. In 1904, the Board of Education began a new building campaign to meet the needs of the burgeoning student population. The Superintendent of School Buildings, architect C. B. J. Snyder, designed a series of buildings to be constructed as needed, around an open quadrangle, while continuing to use the old building in the center of the courtyard. The original Academy building, which still stands in the courtyard of the current school, served the students of Erasmus Hall in three different centuries. Now a designated New York City Landmark and listed in the National Register of Historic Places, the building is a museum exhibiting the school&#39;s history.</p><br>
<p>Due to poor academic scores, the city closed Erasmus Hall High School in 1994, turning the building into Erasmus Hall Educational Campus and using it as the location for five separate small schools.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Erasmus Hall Academy</h3><br>
<p>Erasmus Hall Academy was founded as a private school by Reverend John H. Livingston and Senator John Vanderbilt in 1786 and became the first secondary school chartered by the New York State Board of Regents. Land was donated by the Flatbush Dutch Reformed Church for the building and contributions were collected for “an institution of higher learning,” from leading citizens such as Aaron Burr, Alexander Hamilton, Peter Lefferts and Robert Livingston.</p><br>
<p>The wood-framed, clapboard-sided, Georgian and Federal style school building, two and one-half stories tall with hipped roof, was opened in 1787 with 26 students. Through the years, various wings were added to the academy building and later removed.</p><br>
<p>Erasmus Hall Academy began accepting female students in 1801, and in 1803 it incorporated the village school of Flatbush. The village evolved into a city, and started a public school system that competed with Erasmus for its student body. As a result, there was a steady decline in its enrollment until in 1896 enrollment was reduced to 150 boys and girls, up from the 105 boys who were registered in the school in 1795. The board of trustees decided to donate the academy to the public school system with the following resolution by the board of trustees:</p><br>
<p>That the Board of Trustees offer the grounds of the Academy to the Board of Education of the City of Brooklyn upon the following conditions, viz: In consideration of the gift of the land the Board of Education are to erect and maintain upon said land a High School Building of the same character and grade as other High School Buildings in the City of Brooklyn.</p><br>
<h3>Erasmus Hall High School</h3><br>
<p>Following the agreement with the Erasmus Hall Board of Trustees, the Board of Education of the City of Brooklyn requested proposals for a design for a new school building. Twenty architects responded with plans, several of which were published in contemporary architectural periodicals.</p><br>
<p>It soon became clear that none of these plans could be erected for less than a million dollars, and since that was considered too expensive, the project was dropped. The Brooklyn Board of Education did however, approve "temporary additions" to the school to accommodate the growing population and purchased additional property to allow more room to build a new school.</p><br>
<p>With the consolidation of the City of New York in 1898, the highly varied needs of schools in all the boroughs came under the purview of the New York City school board. This board had to cope with a sizable number of independently administered school districts, each with its own curricula, grade divisions, educational policies, and standards, and weld them all into a single, uniform educational system. At the same time, New York City was experiencing a huge influx of immigrants (increasing the school registers between 1900 and 1904 by 132,000 pupils), and the schools were expected to help Americanize these new students. New high schools were needed in all the boroughs and the Board of Education authorized large new buildings for Morris High School in the Bronx, DeWitt Clinton High School in The Bronx, Curtis High School in Staten Island, Flushing High School in Queens, and Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn.</p><br>
<p>In the interim, however, before a new building for Erasmus Hall could be constructed, the Board of Education purchased more land along Bedford Avenue near the existing building, and established classrooms in the expansion buildings that were already on the lot. They also used classrooms in other schools, such as P.S. 977, and held half-day classes.</p><br>
<p>The modern high school was designed in the Collegiate Gothic style that Snyder used on many of his buildings.</p><br>
<p>On August 17, 1904, the New York City School Board&#39;s Committee on Buildings presented its plans for a new campus for Erasmus Hall High School. It was designed to be constructed around the existing, centrally-located buildings, so that classes could continue to be held there until the new buildings were ready. The plan called for a full quadrangle of buildings along the perimeter of the large lot. It was constructed during four periods: 1905-1906, 1909-1911, 1924-1925, and 1939-1940, with the two later buildings supervised by William H. Gompert and Eric Kebbon, respectively. Its buff brick facades have limestone and terra cotta trim and feature central entrance towers with Oriel windows and crenellated parapets, Tudor-arched entrances, label moldings, and large window groupings. The style of Erasmus Hall evolved over the years so that the most recent buildings are simpler, with less ornamentation, but retain the general characteristics of the earlier ones, giving a sense of unity to the entire composition. The first buildings would be constructed along Flatbush Avenue, with others added over time, as the need became clear and funds became available.</p><br>
<h4>Phase One</h4><br>
<p>Snyder explained his plans for the first phase as follows:</p><br>
<p>... A careful study of the matter convinced me that after all it was a good thing for the future of the school that the present one could not be disturbed, for therein lay the suggestion for a design unique in high schools of the country... A quadrangle enclosed by buildings devoted to various departments of school work.</p><br>
<p>The buildings, therefore, have been designed as a screen across the end of the quadrangle, shutting out the noise and confusion of Flatbush Avenue traffic, the only entrance being through the large arch under the tower, which is placed on the axis of the longer dimension of the plot.</p><br>
<p>This, as designed, would be called a chapel were it part of a college, but if we may not aspire to this, yet I have thought that it might be known as the Hall. As such the endeavor has been to design a harmonious, impressive room, in a style permeated with history and romance; a place which, of all others, will stand out clearly in the loving memory of the student in after years for his alma mater. Its walls, columns and arches should bear the trophies won in athletic and scholastic contests, there to be preserved and handed down as part of the glorious history of the school.</p><br>
<p>There have been no designs made for this elevation (Bedford Avenue), but the aim has been to have a central tower on the same axis as that on Flatbush Avenue, through the archway in the base of which will be afforded a view of the quad with its greensward, trees, shrubs and vines. What the ultimate design of the various buildings going to make up the group may be, it is, of course, impossible to say, but in designing and planning that portion which you now see approaching completion, I have always intended that the whole should be a graphic illustration of the various phases of the so-called Gothic movement, from the Round Arch to the Flamboyant and on through its later transitional stage.</p><br>
<p>The Committee on Buildings described the first section, estimated to cost not more than $300,000, this way:</p><br>
<p>It consists of an entrance tower which will be the center of what will afterwards be the completed front on Flatbush avenue; to the left of the tower and connected therewith has been placed the building in the rear portion of which will be the auditorium, classrooms, library, etc. The building will be three and four stories in height.</p><br>
<p>The basement will contain the gymnasium, placed beneath the auditorium, lecture rooms, baths, toilet room, etc., the boiler or power room being placed beneath the driveway of the tower, one of the turrets of which is utilized for a smoke flue.</p><br>
<p>The first floor will contain the offices of the principal of the school, two classrooms and the auditorium.</p><br>
<p>The second story will contain a library 40 ft square with a gallery facing the second story of the tower, the balance of the floor being apportioned to the gallery of the auditorium, four classrooms, teacher&#39;s rooms, toilets, etc.</p><br>
<p>The third floor will contain four classrooms, demonstration room, balance room, chemical laboratory, and lecture room.</p><br>
<p>The fourth story, which is over a portion of the building, will contain four classrooms. The completed scheme of which this is only a part contemplates the erection of a building on the northerly side of the tower for additional classrooms and laboratories, etc., as may be needed in the future.</p><br>
<p>The cornerstone for the new building was laid in January 1905 and work was begun immediately, resulting in seating for an additional 600 students. The construction contract was initially supposed to run until October 1905, but revisions required by the school board for laboratories and classrooms necessitated changes in the electrical and sanitation plans and delayed the work. The building was opened to students in September 1906.</p><br>
<p>In 1906, the committee purchased a real estate lot that was 57 10" X 138 9" X 359 3" X 7 3" X 493&#39; 6" “adjoining Erasmus Hall High School... to permit carrying out of the scheme for a building commanding a quadrangle, and will be built upon as soon as the school is in need of additional accommodations.</p><br>
<h4>Phase Two</h4><br>
<p>Although the first section of the new building brought the total students accommodated in 1906 to 1,750, by 1907 Erasmus Hall was again overcrowded, requiring the use of an annex at P.S. 42.</p><br>
<p>In his annual report, the Superintendent of Schools declared that,</p><br>
<p>The largest growth in high schools is found in Brooklyn. This growth arises not only from the natural increase in the number of pupils entering from the Brooklyn elementary schools, but also from the number of pupils entering from the Manhattan elementary schools...The consequence is that the Brooklyn high schools are all crowded to excess.</p><br>
<p>Concerned citizens of the area wrote to the Board of Education emphasizing:</p><br>
<p>... the fact that the new building contains only twelve classrooms, accommodating only 420 pupils, whereas there are fifty-two classes, comprising 1,591 pupils, occupying classrooms in the old frame school building and cottages, all of which are utterly unfit for use.</p><br>
<p>The Superintendent&#39;s Annual Report for 1910 reported that 3,114 pupils were enrolled at Erasmus Hall High School and that they were accommodated in four different annex buildings in addition to the main one.</p><br>
<p>In 1909, the Board of Education approved Snyder&#39;s plans for the next section of the school. This group of three buildings, including one to the north of the tower facing Flatbush Avenue, and two extending east along the northern side of the lot, comprised 31 classrooms, laboratories, study hall, music, drawing, physics, lecture and shop rooms. When this Church Avenue addition opened in September 1911, there was room for 1,451 more students in the main school.</p><br>
<h4>Phase Three</h4><br>
<p>The ever-growing school population continued to present challenges to the school board. In his report of May 21, 1924 on construction and maintenance, the Superintendent of Schools discussed "the stupendous building program now being carried on by the Board of Education..." The reason for this situation was given as a backlog of not enough building over several years, as well as an increase in high school population in New York City from 20,948 students in 1904, to 109,370 in 1924. These large numbers were attributed to many factors, including the passage and enforcement of a compulsory education law and the appreciation by more parents of the advantages of higher education to their children. In April 1924, the Board of Education approved the Bedford Avenue addition to Erasmus Hall High School. Snyder had left his position with the Board of Education shortly before construction of this section, but an elevation drawing in the collection of the Art Commission, by C. B. J. Snyder shows the building essentially as built. William Gompert had been appointed in his place and supervised the construction. Although somewhat simpler than his earlier buildings, the Bedford building has a central tower with an arched passageway into the courtyard, on axis with the tower on Flatbush Avenue. The building contained many new classrooms, gymnasia and a large swimming pool along the courtyard and was opened on February 2, 1902.</p><br>
<p>A statue of Erasmus, cast from the 1622 original in Rotterdam by Hendrick de Keyser and donated by Richard Young, an alumnus of the school, was installed in the school&#39;s courtyard. Dedicated in 1931, the base is engraved with the words: Desiderius Erasmus, the maintainer and restorer of the sciences and polite literature, the greatest man of his century, the excellent citizen who, through his immortal writings, acquired an everlasting fame.</p><br>
<h4>Phase Four</h4><br>
<p>Lobbying began in 1929 for the construction of the final section, the building on the south side of the lot connecting the Bedford Avenue building with the auditorium near Flatbush Avenue. Money was not appropriated for this until 1937, and it was finally built in 1939–40. Under the supervision of the school systems then chief architect, Eric Kebbon, the five-story building was an even more simplified version of Snyders earlier work. It contained many classrooms, art and homemaking rooms, a girls&#39; gym and a large library, and could accommodate 1,566 additional pupils. The new section opened in September 1940. To construct this building, the original frame school house had to be moved and its several wings demolished. Work on the old structure was begun by the Works Progress Administration, but was halted due to the outbreak of World War II. After the war, the relocation and restoration of the old building was completed and it was used for administrative offices.</p><br>
<p>In 1987, in celebration of the school&#39;s bicentennial, limited archaeological excavations were conducted under the auspices of Brooklyn College. The archaeologists discovered that intact deposits from the 18th and 19th centuries associated with the development of the school are still in place.</p><br>
<h2>Closure and current status</h2><br>
<p>In 1994, after years of poor academic scores, the huge Erasmus Hall High School was divided internally into five smaller high schools, each concentrating on a different academic area. The five schools have separate administrations and faculties, and hold classes in different sections of the large building. However, they use the common lunchroom, gymnasium, library and auditorium at separate times during the day. This division created no changes on the exterior of the building.</p><br>
<p>As of 2010, separate high schools now operate on the Erasmus Hall Educational Campus:</p><br>
<p>Academy for College Preparation and Career Exploration: A College Board School (K382)</p><br>
<p>Academy of Hospitality and Tourism (K408)</p><br>
<p>High School for Service & Learning at Erasmus (K539)</p><br>
<p>High School for Youth and Community Development at Erasmus (K537)</p><br>
<p>Science, Technology and Research Early College High School/Middle School at Erasmus (K543)</p><br>
<h3>Restorations</h3><br>
<p>In 2011, the columns that supported the building were found to have structural problems, and that year, the building received a restoration. A 2019 report states that "the building still needs more love but in 2017 Brooklyn Borough President Eric Adams pledged $650,000 of the capital budget for exterior restoration".</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Erasmus Hall has had a number of famous and accomplished alumni (and some who are mistakenly believed to have attended, such as Barbara Stanwyck). Some of the better known, including (class year, or birth and death dates), are listed below.</p><br>
<h3>Pre-20th century</h3><br>
<p>John M. Berrien (1793); Attorney General of the United States and Senator.</p><br>
<p>George Hall; first mayor of Brooklyn.</p><br>
<p>John W. Hunter (1824); New York State Senator, Congressman, and mayor of Brooklyn.</p><br>
<p>Morris Smith Miller (1794); Congressman and First Judge of Oneida County.</p><br>
<p>George M. Troup (1792); Governor of Georgia.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Rebecca Alpert (born 1950), professor of Jewish American religious history who was one of the first congregational women rabbis</p><br>
<p>Mary Anderson, silent film actress</p><br>
<p>Irving Anker (1911–2000), educator and administrator</p><br>
<p>Herbert Aptheker (1915–2003), Marxist historian, Communist and political activist</p><br>
<p>Bob Arum, boxing promoter.</p><br>
<p>David Attie, photographer, who later shot portraits of fellow Erasmus Hall alumnus Bobby Fischer</p><br>
<p>Tony Balsamo (1931), Major League Baseball pitcher for the Chicago Cubs</p><br>
<p>Joseph Barbera (1928); artist; cartoonist; co-founder of Hanna-Barbera.</p><br>
<p>Sylvan Barnet (1926–2016), literary critic and Shakespearean scholar</p><br>
<p>Jeff Barry (Joel Adelberg) (1955); songwriter/producer; Songwriters Hall of Fame member</p><br>
<p>Louis Begley (born 1933), Polish-born American novelist</p><br>
<p>Randy E. Bennett, educational researcher</p><br>
<p>Barbara Berman (born 1938); represented New Jersey&#39;s 6th legislative district for a single term</p><br>
<p>Karen Bernod, singer</p><br>
<p>Miriam Bienstock (1923–2015), record company executive</p><br>
<p>Morton Birnbaum (1926–2005), lawyer and physician</p><br>
<p>Julius Blank (1925–2011), semiconductor pioneer</p><br>
<p>Florence Bolan, USA Secret Service special agent</p><br>
<p>Clara Bow, silent film actress</p><br>
<p>Oscar Brand (1920–2016), Canadian-born American folk singer-songwriter and author</p><br>
<p>Alvin Bronstein (1928–2015), lawyer, founder and Director Emeritus of the National Prison Project of the American Civil Liberties Union Foundation</p><br>
<p>Carol Bruce, actress and singer</p><br>
<p>Phillip Brutus, Florida politician</p><br>
<p>Artie Butler, music arranger and songwriter</p><br>
<p>Miriam Goldman Cedarbaum, Senior Judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York</p><br>
<p>Theodore Caplow (1920–2015); sociologist, author, founder of the Department of Sociology at the University of Virginia</p><br>
<p>Jeff Chandler (Ira Grossel) (1935); actor</p><br>
<p>Andrew Cheshire (1981); artist/musician</p><br>
<p>Hy Cohen, Major League Baseball player</p><br>
<p>Karl P. Cohen (1913–2012), physical chemist who became a mathematical physicist</p><br>
<p>Steven M. Cohen (born 1950), sociologist</p><br>
<p>Al Cohn, tenor saxophonist</p><br>
<p>Betty Comden (1933); playwright; Broadway musical songwriter with Adolph Green.</p><br>
<p>Jane Cowl (1902); actress, playwright (original name Jane Bailey).</p><br>
<p>Billy Cunningham (1961); player and coach, Philadelphia &#39;76ers basketball team.</p><br>
<p>Jon Cypher (1949); actor (Hill Street Blues)</p><br>
<p>Howard David (1962); sportscaster</p><br>
<p>George Dargo (1953), professor at New England Law Boston</p><br>
<p>Al Davis; Oakland Raiders owner, Pro Football Hall of Fame member.</p><br>
<p>Clive Davis (1949); Grammy Award winning record producer; Chairman & CEO BMG North America; founder of Arista Records</p><br>
<p>Neil Diamond, attended Erasmus from 1954 to 56; singer/songwriter.</p><br>
<p>Will Downing (1981); singer</p><br>
<p>Mort Drucker (born 1929), caricaturist and comics artist</p><br>
<p>Norm Drucker, professional basketball official</p><br>
<p>Donald Dubin (1933-2022) Founding member Microbiology Dept, Rutgers Medical School; research in antimicrobial resistance, RNA modification, and AIDS transmission.</p><br>
<p>Genevieve Earle (1885–1956); first woman elected to the New York City Council, in 1937</p><br>
<p>Bobby Fischer (dropped out in 1960); chess champion.</p><br>
<p>Jim Florio (1964); former Governor of New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>Joseph C. H. Flynn; lawyer, politician, and magistrate</p><br>
<p>Arthur Frommer; travel writer who founded the Frommer&#39;s travel guides</p><br>
<p>Robert Peter Gale (1962); physician, biomedical scientist and author</p><br>
<p>Dave Getz (1957); drummer Big Brother and the Holding Company</p><br>
<p>Theresa Goell, archaeologist</p><br>
<p>Jeffrey P. Gold, MD, cardiac surgeon and chancellor, University of Nebraska Medical Center</p><br>
<p>Jonah Goldman, major league baseball player</p><br>
<p>Deborah Grabien (c. 1971); novelist/essayist; musician and songwriter.</p><br>
<p>Earl G. Graves (1952); publisher of Black Enterprise magazine</p><br>
<p>Clement Greenberg (1909–1994), essayist</p><br>
<p>William Lindsay Gresham (1909–1962), novelist and non-fiction author</p><br>
<p>Arno Gruen, psychoanalyst, psychologist and writer</p><br>
<p>Susan Hayward (Edythe Marrenner), (1935); Oscar-winning actress</p><br>
<p>Mel Holder (1978), Grammy-nominated saxophonist/songwriter/author/pastor</p><br>
<p>Eleanor Holm (1932); Olympic swimmer</p><br>
<p>Alice Sterling Honig (1929–2023), child psychologist</p><br>
<p>Mikhail Horowitz (born 1950), poet, parodist, satirist, social commentator, author and editor.</p><br>
<p>Moe Howard (Moses Harry Horwitz), (dropped out after two months, 1915) member of the Three Stooges comedy team</p><br>
<p>Waite Hoyt, Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher for the New York Yankees and long-time broadcaster for the Cincinnati Reds</p><br>
<p>Stanley Edgar Hyman; literary critic; husband of Shirley Jackson.</p><br>
<p>Marty Ingels, comedian; husband of Shirley Jones.</p><br>
<p>Ned Irish (1924); organizer of first Madison Square Garden basketball tournament (1934); founder of the New York Knicks; president, Madison Square Garden; member of the Basketball Hall of Fame.</p><br>
<p>Brian Jackson; pianist, flautist and songwriter who wrote and performed with Gil Scott Heron and the Midnight Band throughout the 1970s</p><br>
<p>Suzanne Kaaren (Sophie Kischnerman) (1912–2004); Actress.</p><br>
<p>Roger Kahn (1945); sportswriter, author of several books including The Boys of Summer.</p><br>
<p>Tom Kahn (1956); leader of the civil rights, social-democratic, and labor movements.</p><br>
<p>Eric Kandel (1944); winner of Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology, 2000.</p><br>
<p>Lainie Kazan (Lainie Levine), (1956); actress and singer</p><br>
<p>Dorothy Kilgallen (1930); newspaper journalist, television game show panelist and talk radio personality</p><br>
<p>Elaine de Kooning (1918–1989), abstract expressionist and figurative expressionist painter</p><br>
<p>Bernie Kopell (1953); actor</p><br>
<p>Harold Kushner (1951); rabbi and author.</p><br>
<p>Arthur Laurents (1917–2011), playwright, stage director and screenwriter</p><br>
<p>Daniel Lang, author and journalist</p><br>
<p>Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee (1896-1966); well-known figure in the women&#39;s suffrage movement, first Chinese woman in the United States to earn a PhD in Economics, established the First Chinese Baptist Church and the Chinese Community Center</p><br>
<p>Samuel LeFrak (1936); real estate developer.</p><br>
<p>Larry Levan, DJ</p><br>
<p>Ira N. Levine, author and professor of Chemistry at Brooklyn College</p><br>
<p>Abraham Lilienfeld, epidemiologist and professor</p><br>
<p>Sid Luckman (1935); football champion with the Chicago Bears; NFL quarterback and Pro Football Hall of Fame.</p><br>
<p>Bernard Malamud (1932); author and educator; Pulitzer Prize for The Magic Barrel, 1958 and The Fixer, 1967</p><br>
<p>Daniel Mann, attended in 1920s, transferred before graduating; film and television director.</p><br>
<p>Kedar Massenburg (1981); former CEO/President of Motown Records</p><br>
<p>Barbara McClintock (1919); winner of Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, 1983.</p><br>
<p>Joseph McGoldrick (1901–1978) - NYC Comptroller and NY State Residential Rent Control Commissioner, lawyer, and professor</p><br>
<p>Aline MacMahon, actress</p><br>
<p>Don McMahon, Major League Baseball player</p><br>
<p>James Meissner (1914); World War I Flying Ace</p><br>
<p>Stephanie Mills, (1975); actress/singer.</p><br>
<p>Doug Moe, (1956); long time player and coach, ABA and NBA.</p><br>
<p>Don Most (1970); actor</p><br>
<p>Jay Neugeboren (born 1938), novelist, essayist, and short story writer</p><br>
<p>Matthew Nimetz (born 1939), diplomat</p><br>
<p>Bob Olin; boxer and world light heavyweight champion</p><br>
<p>William E. Paul (1936–2015), immunologist</p><br>
<p>Lee Pockriss (1924–2011), songwriter</p><br>
<p>Gilbert Price (1960); singer/actor. Protege of Langston Hughes.</p><br>
<p>Marky Ramone (Marc Steven Bell), drummer of seminal New York punk band The Ramones</p><br>
<p>Michael Rapaport, TV actor, attended Erasmus in the 1980s</p><br>
<p>Eleanor Raskin (née Stein; born 1946), member of the Weatherman, adjunct instructor at Albany Law School</p><br>
<p>Lynn Pressman Raymond (–2009), toy and game innovator who was president of the Pressman Toy Corporation</p><br>
<p>Jerry Reinsdorf (1953); part-owner of the Chicago Bulls and Chicago White Sox.</p><br>
<p>Wayne Rhoden, attended Erasmus in 1981; music producer, singer, songwriter, sound engineer and video editor/director professionally known as the artist Father Goose Music</p><br>
<p>Mike Rosen (1960) Denver radio talk show host</p><br>
<p>Robert Rosen (1970); author of the best-selling biography Nowhere Man: The Final Days of John Lennon.</p><br>
<p>Alvin Roth (1948); college basketball player</p><br>
<p>Arlene Rothlein, postmodern dancer/choreographer and actress</p><br>
<p>Lewis Rowland, neurologist, president of the American Neurological Association and the American Academy of Neurology</p><br>
<p>Sam Rutigliano, former NFL head coach.</p><br>
<p>Arthur M. Sackler, MD (1931); pharmaceutical executive and art collector.</p><br>
<p>David Salzman (1961); American television producer and businessman.</p><br>
<p>Curtis Samuel (1996); NFL wide receiver</p><br>
<p>Guy Sands-Pingot, (1974); USA Army brigadier general</p><br>
<p>Harvey Schiller, sports executive.</p><br>
<p>Sheldon Segal, contraceptive developer.</p><br>
<p>Alan Shulman (attended between 1928 and 1929); composer and cellist</p><br>
<p>Beverly Sills (Belle Miriam Silverman), coloratura opera singer, attended Erasmus in the mid-1940s and transferred before graduating.</p><br>
<p>Robert Silverberg (1952); novelist.</p><br>
<p>Harold Snyder (1922–2008), businessperson who started Biocraft Laboratories</p><br>
<p>Special Ed (Edward Archer), rapper who mentions Erasmus Hall on his album Youngest in Charge.</p><br>
<p>Melodee M. Spevack (1970); actress, writer, anime voice performer</p><br>
<p>Mickey Spillane (Frank Morrison Spillane) (1936); author of detective and mystery fiction.</p><br>
<p>Bern Nadette Stanis (Bernadette Stanislaus) (1972); actress</p><br>
<p>Barbra Streisand (Barbara Joan Streisand) (1959); actress, singer, director, producer.</p><br>
<p>Simon H. Stertzer, professor emeritus at Stanford University, cardiologist; performed the first coronary angioplasty in the United States</p><br>
<p>Charles ("Chuck") Suber (1937); publisher of DownBeat Magazine</p><br>
<p>Paul Sylbert (1946), art director and set designer</p><br>
<p>Richard Sylbert (1946) Academy Award-winning art director and set designer, twin brother of Paul</p><br>
<p>Constance Talmadge Silent Movie Star.</p><br>
<p>Norma Talmadge (1911); silent film actress.</p><br>
<p>Verree Teasdale (1903–1987) actress of stage and screen.</p><br>
<p>Adrianne Tolsch comedian.</p><br>
<p>Cheryl Toussaint (1970); athlete; Olympic gold medalist, 1972.</p><br>
<p>D. Train (James Williams) (1980), singer/songwriter</p><br>
<p>Overton Tremper (1922); professional baseball player for the Brooklyn Dodgers</p><br>
<p>Kenny Vance, musician, who calls out Erasmus Hall in the first line of "Looking for an Echo"</p><br>
<p>Eli Wallach, (1932); actor</p><br>
<p>A. J. Weberman, (1959); inventor of the words "garbology" and "Dylanology"</p><br>
<p>Sonny Werblin (1910–1991), entertainment industry executive and sports impresario, owner of the New York Jets, chairman of Madison Square Garden</p><br>
<p>Mae West (Mary Jane West) (1911); actress, comedian, playwright.</p><br>
<p>Anne Elizabeth Wilson writer, poet, editor; pet cemetery owner</p><br>
<p>Marian Winters, actress.</p><br>
<p>Paula Wolfert (1955), award-winning cookbook author and Mediterranean cuisines specialist</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>Christian Izien (2018); professional football safety for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers</p><br>
<p>Matthew Jones (2018); college football offensive guard for the Ohio State Buckeyes</p><br>
<p>Curtis Samuel (2013); professional football wide receiver for the Buffalo Bills of the National Football League</p><br>
<p>Camp Hale was a USA Army training facility in the western United States, constructed in 1942 for what became the 10th Mountain Division. Located in central Colorado between Red Cliff and Leadville in the Eagle River Valley at an elevation of 9,238 ft, it was named for General Irving Hale. Onslow S. Rolfe, who had developed mountain warfare techniques as commander of the 87th Mountain Infantry Regiment, was selected to command Camp Hale.</p><br>
<p>Soldiers were trained in mountain climbing, Alpine and Nordic skiing, cold-weather survival, and various weapons and ordnance. When it was in full operation, approximately 15,000 soldiers were housed there.</p><br>
<p>The creation of an elite ski corps was a national effort, with assistance from the National Association of Ski Patrol, local ski clubs, and Hollywood. Enough men were recruited to create three army regiments, which were deployed after training. Camp Hale was decommissioned in November 1945.</p><br>
<p>On October 12, 2022, President Joe Biden designated Camp Hale and a noncontiguous nearby part of the Tenmile Range as Camp Hale—Continental Divide National Monument. It comprises 53,804 acre, which will be managed by the White River National Forest unit of the USA Forest Service. Conversion of the site to a monument will not affect any permits held by the neighboring ski resorts and the monument will continue to support a wide range of motorized and non-motorized recreation opportunities.</p><br>
<h2>World War II</h2><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>The armed ski corps in the USA was based on the ski warfare tactics of the Finnish Army during the Winter War (1939–1940). Early in the effort, 8,000 skiers and outdoorsmen were recruited. The camp was built to accommodate the effort at a cost of $30 million.</p><br>
<p>The War Department chose the location at 9,200 ft because the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad stopped at Pando rail station and historically the snowfall in the Tennessee Pass area was plentiful. Construction of the camp began in the spring of 1942 and finished seven months later; during that period Highway 24 was moved, a sewage system installed to prevent pollution in the nearby town of Red Cliff, and the meadow drained. Additionally, the nearby town of Leadville to the south, the only source of recreation for the trainees, was persuaded to change its moral character, perceived "to be on a rather low plane."</p><br>
<p>The camp included mess halls, infirmaries, a ski shop, administrative offices, a movie theater, and stables for livestock. White painted barracks for 15,000 soldiers were built straight lines on the mountain meadow, but when the first trainees of the 87th Regiment of the 10th Light Division, quickly renamed the 10th Mountain Division, arrived in the winter of 1942 only a small portion of barracks were filled. The War Department needed to train more skiers in the elite fighting ski corps and asked the American Ski Patrol Association to contact ski racing clubs, ski schools, and local patrol units, nationwide—each applicant had to supply three letters of recommendation.</p><br>
<h3>Recruitment</h3><br>
<p>After 1942 problems in communication caused by the war slowed the recruitment effort. However, that year, Darryl Zanuck released Sun Valley Serenade, starring Sonja Henie and featuring the Glenn Miller Orchestra, and filmed on location in Sun Valley. The movie was a hit and the Hollywood effort helped to interest trainees in the ski corps. Two more wartime movies were made, each filmed at Camp Hale, featuring the white-clad elite troops—Mountain Fighters in 1943 and I Love a Soldier in 1944. The ski corps was featured on national magazine covers and popular radio shows. In addition, 200 women from the Women&#39;s Army Corps were brought in for administrative support.</p><br>
<h3>Training</h3><br>
<p>By 1943, Camp Hale had as many as 14,000 men in training. Conditions in the camp were harsh: the altitude required acclimation and the shallow valley created polluted inversion layers, as the primary energy source was coal. Recreation (outside of skiing) was non-existent because of the camp&#39;s high mountain isolation, which prevented even the USO from visiting, and many of the non-skiing trainees hated skiing. Trainees were taught to ski at Cooper Hill by ski instructors, brought from the ski-areas such as Sun Valley and Waterville Valley. Located three miles (5 km) south of the camp, Cooper Hill had on-site barracks for the instructors and a newly built T-bar lift for the trainees.</p><br>
<p>Military use of Camp Hale included the 10th Mountain Division, commanded by Lloyd E. Jones, the 38th Regimental Combat Team, the Norwegian-American 99th Infantry Battalion (Separate), and soldiers from Fort Carson conducting mountain and winter warfare training exercises. Trainees were taught skiing, mountain climbing, snow survival skills (such as building snow caves), and winter combat. Also present at Camp Hale was the 620th Engineer General Service Company, a unit composed of suspected unreliable German-Americans or soldiers with suspected pro-National Socialist beliefs.</p><br>
<p>Camp Hale was active for just three years; it was deactivated in November 1945 and the 10th Mountain Division moved to Texas.</p><br>
<h3>Prisoner of war camp</h3><br>
<p>Camp Hale held "about 400 of the most incorrigible members of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel&#39;s Afrika Corps". On 15 February 1944, guard Private Dale Maple of the 620th Engineer General Service Unit drove away with German Sergeants Heinrich Kikillus and Erhard Schwichtenberg. They made it to Mexico before being arrested and turned over to USA authorities. In an unrelated scandal, in March 1944, five WACs were charged with exchanging notes with the prisoners. Three received sentences of four to six months of confinement. The army used POWs to dismantle most of the structures in 1945.</p><br>
<h2>Late 20th century</h2><br>
<p>Many Tibetan resistance fighters were secretly trained at Camp Hale by the CIA. "By February 1963, four groups totaling 135 Tibetans (ten more than originally planned) had arrived at Hale." This was "... the first wave of Tibetans." The site was chosen because of the similarities of the terrain and elevation with the Himalayan Plateau, being heavily mountainous and over 10,000 feet above sea level. The fighters were trained in the use of mortars, explosive, and rifles and instructed in the art of guerilla warfare and subterfuge. The Tibetans nicknamed the camp "Dhumra", meaning "The Garden", due to their enriched hatred of the Chinese occupation of their country. To cover up their newly heightened activity within the camp, the CIA circulated a story in the local press that Camp Hale was to be the site of atomic tests and would be a high security zone going forward. Until the camp was closed in 1964, the entire area was cordoned off and its perimeter patrolled by military police to keep any unwanted eyes away. In all, around 259 Tibetans were trained at Camp Hale, and after it was dismantled, no Tibetans remained in Colorado having all be redeployed into their homeland to fight against the Chinese. From 1958 to 1960, Anthony Poshepny trained various special missions teams, including Tibetan Khambas and Hui Muslims, for operations in China against the communist government.</p><br>
<p>In 1965, Camp Hale was dismantled and the land was deeded to the USA Forest Service. Since 1974, the area has become a youth development training center. An Eagle County non-profit organization, SOS Outreach, has used the site to expose disadvantaged youth to many of the same outdoor challenges experienced by the 10th Mountain Division.</p><br>
<p>In 1962, Pete Seibert, who was among the soldiers who trained at Camp Hale and then returned to the area after the war, founded the Vail Ski Resort nearby.</p><br>
<p>In July and August 1985 the valley was the site of the North American Pathfinder camporee with 16,129 attending.</p><br>
<h2>Current status</h2><br>
<p>In 2003, the USA Army Corps of Engineers began a cleanup effort to remove some of the unexploded ordnance at the site in conjunction with several other government agencies. This effort is still ongoing.</p><br>
<p>Most of the remnants of Camp Hale are located in the White River National Forest. There are camping grounds where overnight camping is permitted on this former army base. Several informational plaques are located throughout the area. These plaques contain historical information about camp construction, the 99th Infantry Battalion, ski training, rock climbing/alpine training, the motor pool area, CIA training, and camp entertainment.</p><br>
<h2>National Monument</h2><br>
<p>In 2019, the Camp Hale site was proposed to be the first National Historic Landscape, under the Colorado Outdoor Recreation & Economy (CORE) Act, which would designate 28,728 acres for preservation. Congressman Joe Neguse hosted Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack, Colorado Governor Jared Polis, and USA Senators Michael Bennet and John Hickenlooper at Camp Hale on August 22, 2022, in support of the bill. With the bill stalled in Congress, on October 12, 2022, President Biden visited the site with the same five leaders and used the Antiquities Act to declare the site a national monument, the 53,804-acre Camp Hale – Continental Divide National Monument. While the designation had support of area mayors and county commissioners and "drew a flurry of praise from political, social and conservation groups", various conservative politicians spoke out in opposition to the new national monument. A survey had found 86% of Coloradans supported national monument protections for Colorado recreation and conservation areas.</p><br>
<p>The monument includes approximately 28,684 acres in the Camp Hale area and 25,210 acres in the Tenmile area. The Tenmile area was originally proposed in the CORE Act to be recreation management area and wilderness area. The Continental Divide Trail passes through both sections for approximately 20 miles.</p><br>
<p>Plymouth Rock is the historical disembarkation site of the Mayflower Pilgrims who founded Plymouth Colony in December 1620.</p><br>
<p>The Pilgrims did not refer to Plymouth Rock in any of their writings; the first known written reference to the rock dates from 1715 when it was described in the town boundary records as "a great rock of all the rocks".</p><br>
<p>The first documented claim of Plymouth Rock as the landing place of the Pilgrims was made by 94-year-old Thomas Faunce in 1741, 121 years after the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth.</p><br>
<p>In 1774, the rock broke in half during an attempt to haul it to Town Square in Plymouth. One portion remained in Town Square and was moved to Pilgrim Hall Museum in 1834. It was rejoined with the other portion of the rock, which was still at its original site on the shore of Plymouth Harbor, in 1880. The date 1620 was inscribed at that time. The rock is now ensconced beneath a granite canopy. However, Plymouth Rock has been moved multiple times since 1620. According to Donna D. Curtin, Executive Director of the Pilgrim Hall Museum, the rock has "unquestionably" been relocated several times, including its complete excavation and latest relocation onto the shoreline in 1920. This fact complicates the perception that it remains in its original location, as it has been moved and altered multiple times over the centuries.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early identification</h3><br>
<p>The two most significant primary sources on the founding of Plymouth Colony are Edward Winslows 1622 Mourts Relation and William Bradford&#39;s 1630–1651 history Of Plymouth Plantation, and neither refers to Plymouth Rock. The rock first attracted public attention in 1741 when the residents of Plymouth began plans to build a wharf which would bury it. Before construction began, a 94-year-old church elder named Thomas Faunce declared that the boulder was the landing place of the Mayflower Pilgrims.</p><br>
<p>However, modern scholarship has cast doubt on the rock’s significance as a landing site, particularly because it has been moved numerous times since 1620. Donna D. Curtin, Executive Director of the Pilgrim Hall Museum, stated that the rock has "unquestionably" been moved multiple times. This includes being raised from its original location due to the construction of a wharf, and its later excavation and relocation onto the shoreline in 1920, indicating that the rock&#39;s location has changed significantly over time.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile Faunce asked to be brought to the rock to say a farewell. According to Plymouth historian James Thacher:</p><br>
<p>Faunce&#39;s father had arrived in the colony aboard the ship Anne in 1623, just three years after the Mayflower landing, and Elder Faunce was born in 1647, when many of the Mayflower Pilgrims were still living, so his assertion made a strong impression on the people of Plymouth. The wharf was built but the rock left intact, the top portion protruding from the dirt so as to be visible to curious visitors.</p><br>
<p>More recent generations have questioned Faunce&#39;s assertion, alleging that he invented the story or did not have the correct facts, given that he was not an eyewitness to the event. Journalist Bill Bryson, for example, wrote, "The one thing the Pilgrims certainly did not do was step ashore on Plymouth Rock", arguing that the boulder would have made an impractical landing spot. Others have pointed out that the Pilgrims landed at Provincetown to explore Cape Cod more than a month before they arrived in Plymouth harbor, which lessens the significance of where they set foot in Plymouth. In 1851, a group of Cape Cod residents formed the Cape Cod Association for the purpose of promoting Provincetown as the site of the original Pilgrim landing. Such efforts eventually led to the construction of the Pilgrim Monument in Provincetown, which was completed in 1910.</p><br>
<h3>Movements</h3><br>
<p>Col. Theophilus Cotton (son of Plymouth magistrate Josiah Cotton) and the townspeople of Plymouth decided to move the rock in 1774. It split in two, however, so the bottom portion was left behind at the wharf and the top portion was relocated to the town&#39;s meeting house.</p><br>
<p>Captain William Coit wrote in The Pennsylvania Journal of November 29, 1775 that he brought captive British sailors ashore "upon the same rock our ancestors first trod".</p><br>
<p>A large portion of the rock was relocated from Plymouth&#39;s meetinghouse to Pilgrim Hall in 1834. In 1859, the Pilgrim Society began building a Victorian canopy designed by Hammett Billings at the wharf over the portion of the rock left there, which was completed in 1867. The Pilgrim Hall section of the rock was moved back to its original wharf location in 1880, rejoined to the remaining portion, and the date "1620" was carved into it.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, the rock was temporarily relocated so that the old wharves could be removed and the waterfront landscaped to a design by architect Arthur Shurcliff, with a waterfront promenade behind a low seawall in such a way that, when the rock was returned to its original site, it would be at water level. The care of the rock was turned over to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, and a new Roman Doric portico was constructed, designed by McKim, Mead and White for viewing the tide-washed rock protected by gratings.</p><br>
<p>During the rocks many journeys throughout the town of Plymouth, numerous pieces were taken and sold. Today approximately a third remains. It is estimated that the original Rock weighed 20,000 lb. Some documents indicate that tourists or souvenir hunters chipped it down, although no pieces have been noticeably removed since 1880. Today there are pieces in Pilgrim Hall Museum and in the Smithsonians National Museum of American History.</p><br>
<p>A 40 lb piece of the Rock is set on a pedestal in the cloister of historic Plymouth Church of the Pilgrims in Brooklyn Heights, New York. The church was formed by a merger of Plymouth Church and Church of the Pilgrims and was originally pastored by Henry Ward Beecher, brother of author Harriet Beecher Stowe.</p><br>
<p>In 1835, French author Alexis de Tocqueville wrote:</p><br>
<h3>State park attraction</h3><br>
<p>Today, Plymouth Rock is managed by the Department of Conservation and Recreation for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts as part of Pilgrim Memorial State Park. From April through November, Pilgrim Memorial is staffed by guides who inform visitors of the story of Plymouth Rock.</p><br>
<p>While the rock is currently situated beneath a granite canopy at Pilgrim Memorial State Park, it has been moved several times since the 18th century. Experts such as Donna D. Curtin of the Pilgrim Hall Museum and Dr. Simon Engelhart of Durham University&#39;s Department of Geography confirm that Plymouth Rock has been relocated multiple times, with its current location differing from its original position in 1620. This movement highlights the evolving narrative and physical journey of this historical symbol.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<p>The Princeton Quadrangle Club, often abbreviated to "Quad", is one of the eleven eating clubs at Princeton University that remain open. Located at 33 Prospect Avenue, the club is currently "sign-in," meaning it permits any second semester sophomore, junior or senior to join. The club&#39;s tradition of openness is demonstrated as far back as 1970, when Quadrangle became one of the first coeducational eating clubs .</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The club was formed in 1896 in a house built on the south side of Prospect Avenue. In its early years, it changed its location several times. In 1901, it moved to the north side of "the Street," and in 1903 it moved back to the south side, where the Princeton Tower Club now stands. In 1910 it moved to a house built in 1887 for James McCosh, the eleventh president of Princeton University. In 1915, Quadrangle Club sold the McCosh house and built its own house, designed by Henry Milliken, Princeton Class of 1905 in a classic brick Georgian Revival structure. The club has existed in this building since 1916.</p><br>
<p>F. Scott Fitzgerald described Quadrangle Club in This Side of Paradise as "Literary Quadrangle." Fitzgerald later commented that he might have felt more comfortable in "Literary Quadrangle" with contemporaries such as John Peale Bishop, an American poet.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, Quad signed-in 115 new members, a 342% increase from the year before and more than any other sign-in eating club except for Terrace Club. The current Chairman of the Board is alumnus Dinesh Maneyapanda.</p><br>
<h2>Musical tradition</h2><br>
<p>With some funding from the Princeton Undergraduate Student Government, the Quadrangle Club has hosted to some of the biggest concerts on Princetons campus, including Barenaked Ladies in 1993, Lifehouse in 2003, Maroon 5 in 2004, Rihanna in 2006, and T-Pain in 2013. These concerts have been documented as having drawn more than half of the universitys entire undergraduate population. Below is a listing of the groups that have performed at the club in recent years at the semiannual University-wide festival called "Lawnparties".</p><br>
<p>The club’s perspicacious interest in music also extends to identifying early musical talent and booking intimate club music evenings with future superstars. For example, in the late 1980s Blues Traveler played a party at Quadrangle before the release of their first album.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Stephen Ailes &#39;33 - United States Secretary of the Army 1964-1965</p><br>
<p>R. W. Apple, Jr. &#39;57 - New York Times editor</p><br>
<p>Robert L. Belknap &#39;51 - Russian literature scholar and dean of Columbia College</p><br>
<p>Jeff Bezos &#39;86 - founder of Amazon.com</p><br>
<p>Eduardo Bhatia &#39;86 - 15th President of the Senate of Puerto Rico</p><br>
<p>John Peale Bishop &#39;17 - writer, poet</p><br>
<p>Kit Bond &#39;60 - former USA senator and governor of Missouri</p><br>
<p>Ralph DeNunzio &#39;56 - investment banker and chairman of the New York Stock Exchange</p><br>
<p>Fred E. Fox &#39;39 - collector of Princeton traditions known as "Keeper of the Princetoniana"</p><br>
<p>Robert F. Goheen &#39;40 - president of Princeton University and USA Ambassador to India</p><br>
<p>Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers &#39;87 - US District Judge for the United States District Court for the Northern District of California</p><br>
<p>J. Robert Hillier &#39;59 - Founder of Hillier Architecture (sold to RMJM in 2007)</p><br>
<p>David Huebner &#39;82 - United States Ambassador to New Zealand and Samoa</p><br>
<p>Wentworth Miller &#39;95 - Actor, model and screenwriter</p><br>
<p>Jerome Powell &#39;75 - Chair of the Federal Reserve</p><br>
<p>Neil L. Rudenstine &#39;56 - Former president of Harvard University.</p><br>
<p>George P. Shultz &#39;42 - Former United States Secretary of Labor, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of State, and president of Bechtel.</p><br>
<p>Adlai Stevenson &#39;22 - governor of Illinois, USA Ambassador to the United Nations, and Democratic Party nominee for President in 1952 and 1956</p><br>
<p>Robert Venturi &#39;47 - Architect (at Princeton: Wu Hall, Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Frist Campus Center)</p><br>
<p>Sir Gordon Wu &#39;58 - Chairman of Hopewell Holdings</p><br>
<p>Honolulu Hale , located on 530 South King Street in downtown Honolulu in the City & County of Honolulu, Hawaii, is the official seat of government of the city and county, site of the chambers of the Mayor of Honolulu and the Honolulu City Council.</p><br>
<p>In the Hawaiian language, hale (pronounced HAH-leh) means house or building. Honolulu Hale means Honolulu House (although the Hawaiian language word order would be Hale Honolulu). In 1978, it was listed as a contributing property to the Hawaii Capital Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Honolulu Hale was an idea started by Joseph J. Fern. Before becoming a mayor-council type of government, Honolulu was administered by the Board of Supervisors. After the creation of the now-defunct County of Oahu, the Board of Supervisors met in city halls located in various downtown Honolulu locations. Supervisor Fern had a vision of a permanent home for the fledgling municipal government, which had only been created in 1900 upon passage of the Hawaiian Organic Act. When the County of Oahu and the Board of Supervisors dissolved in 1907 and established the City & County of Honolulu, Fern became its first mayor and began making preliminary plans for the construction of a city hall. Unfortunately, Fern died in 1920 of diabetes before he could persuade residents of the need for a permanent city hall. Mayor John H. Wilson, who was also the Honolulu Chapter President of the American Association of Engineers, carried on Fern&#39;s dream.</p><br>
<p>Honolulu Hale was finally completed in 1928 with the help of every major architect in town&mdash;C.W. Dickey, Hart Wood, Robert Miller, and Rothwell Kangeter & Lester&mdash;but did not open for business until the following year. It was built in an Italianate Spanish Colonial Revival style that was popular in the islands at the time. Its interior courtyard, staircase, and open ceiling were modeled after the Bargello in Florence. Einar Peterson was commissioned to paint frescoes in the interior while Mario Valdastri was commissioned to install intricate stonework. In 1951, two three-story wings were added to the original structure.</p><br>
<p>A new, high-rise Honolulu Municipal Building was later constructed at 650 South King Street. In 2006, it was renamed the Frank F. Fasi Municipal Building in honor of Frank Fasi, the city&#39;s longest-serving mayor.</p><br>
<p>Surrounding Honolulu Hale are other prominent historic and artistic landmarks: Aliiōlani Hale, Hawaii State Capitol, Iolani Palace, Kawaiahao Church, Sky Gate (a 24 ft high sculpture by Isamu Noguchi), and the Territorial Building.</p><br>
<p>King Ranch is the largest ranch in the United States. At some 825,000 acre it is larger than both the land area of Rhode Island and the area of the European country Luxembourg. It is mainly a cattle ranch, but also produced the racehorse Assault, who won the Triple Crown in 1946.</p><br>
<p>The headquarters of the King Ranch are in an office building in Houston, Texas. The ranch itself is located in South Texas between Corpus Christi and Brownsville, adjacent to Kingsville. It was founded in 1853 by Captain Richard King and Gideon K. Lewis. It includes parts of six Texas counties: most of Kleberg, much of Kenedy, and parts of Brooks, Jim Wells, Nueces, and Willacy counties.</p><br>
<p>The ranch consists of four divisions of land: Santa Gertrudis, Laureles, Encino, and Norias. The Santa Gertrudis and Laureles divisions share a short length of border, and the Encino and Norias divisions are both entirely separate. The ranch was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961. The Texas Cowboy Hall of Fame inducted the ranch in 2019. King Ranch was one of the first ranches to be added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966, because of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 which was signed that same day.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Richard King (1824–1885) was a river pilot, born in New York City to Irish immigrants. He was indentured to a jeweler at age 11, but later ran to sea, eventually attaining a pilots rating. In 1843, King first met his future business partner in the King Ranch, Mifflin Kenedy (1818–1895), captain of the steamboat Champion. Both served under General Zachary Taylor (later the 12th US president), operating steamboats from Brazos Santiago Harbor in Texas, USA, to Matamoros in Mexico, and on up river to Camargo, Tamaulipas, in support of the USA invasion of Monterrey and Saltillo. After the Mexican–American War, King made a good living hauling merchandise on the Rio Grande, as far up river as Camargo, and Rio Grande City. In the meantime, Kenedy was able to make money by carrying goods overland into Mexico. By March 1, 1850, King, Kenedy, Charles Stillman, founder of Brownsville, and James ODonnell entered into a business partnership (M. Kenedy & Co.) to transport Stillman&#39;s goods from Brazos Santiago Harbor on the Gulf of Mexico and up the Rio Grande. The enterprise required two types of steamers — the Grampus and Comanche. During the American Civil War, the steamboat fleet was reflagged under the name of the Matamoros, Mexico citizen Francisco Iturria and the Mexican flag. As Mexico was a neutral country, the steamboats could not be stopped by Union blockaders, and engaged in a lively commerce of transporting Texas cotton to many deep-water ships anchored offshore Matamoros, on the Mexican side of the Rio Grande. Stillman sold his share of the enterprise after the Civil War; the new firm operated as King, Kenedy & Co. until 1874.</p><br>
<p>King first saw the land that would become part of the King Ranch in April 1852 as he traveled north from Brownsville to attend the Lone Star Fair in Corpus Christi, a four-day trip by horseback. After a grueling ride, King caught sight of the Santa Gertrudis Creek, 124 mi from the Rio Grande. It was the first stream he had seen on the Wild Horse Desert. The land, which was shaded by large mesquite trees, so impressed him, when he arrived at the fair, he and a friend, Texas Ranger Captain Gideon K. "Legs" Lewis, agreed then and there to make it into a ranch.</p><br>
<p>The King Ranch LK brand, still in use today, stands for partners Lewis and King.</p><br>
<p>King and Lewis established a cow camp on Santa Gertrudis Creek. During this time, Richard King purchased the Rincón de Santa Gertrudis grant, a 15,500 acre holding that encompassed present-day Kingsville, Texas. It was purchased from the heirs of Juan Mendiola of Camargo on July 25, 1853, for $300. King sold Lewis an undivided half-interest in the land for $2,000. At the same time, Lewis sold King undivided half-interest in the ranchos of Manuel Barrera and of Juan Villareal for the same sum, on November 14, 1853. In 1854, King and Lewis purchased the de la Garza Santa Gertrudis grant from Praxides Uribe of Matamoros for $1,800, on the condition of a perfected title (complete documentation of the land grant) on May 20, 1854, to 53,000 acre. As the years passed, more land was added, growing to 1.2 million acres (1,875 sq mi, 4,900 km) at its largest extent, until reaching its current total.</p><br>
<p>In 1855, Lewis was killed by the husband of a woman with whom he had been having an affair. On July 1, 1856, a court sale of Lewis&#39; property (including the undivided half-interest in the land of the Ranch) was held. King had arranged for Major W. W. Chapman (died 1859) to bid on the Rincón property, which Chapman acquired for $1,575. Chapman had been the quartermaster of Fort Brown in Brownsville, and regulated the steamboat contracts to supply Fort Ringgold, up river in Rio Grande City.</p><br>
<p>King interested Captain James Walworth in acquiring the entire de la Garza grant, and Walworth completed the purchase on December 26, 1856, for $5,000 paid to Praxides Uribe. King thus retained operational control of the Ranch, with Walworth as a silent partner who held title to the land, and who paid taxes on it.</p><br>
<p>King and Walworth&#39;s livestock brand was registered June 27, 1859, along with his earlier brands. (see below)</p><br>
<p>When King and his partners began hiring people to staff the ranch, they hired a number of Mexican hands. In one notable case, King traveled to the village of Cruillas, Tamaulipas, Mexico in the early months of 1854 (the village having been decimated by a severe drought) and purchased the villages entire cattle population. But shortly after leaving the village, King realized that by solving the villages short-term problem, by providing needed income to survive the drought, he had created a longer-term one by removing its source of future income. King thus returned to Cruillas and offered the villagers the opportunity to work for him, in exchange for food, shelter, and income. Many of the villagers accepted Kings offer and relocated to Texas. As the ranch grew, these workers came to be called kineños, or "Kings men". Over time, some original grantees returned to their land. King once said he "could not have kept on and held on if Andrés Canales had not been adjoining."</p><br>
<p>Records show a Mexican range cow cost $6 in 1854, a mustang horse cost $6, and a stud horse cost $200–300. In sum, in 1854, King paid $12,275.79. Lea estimated the 1855 expenses were smaller. The first brand was the ere flecha (an R with arrow through it).</p><br>
<p>In 1859, the ranch recorded its first official brands (HK and LK). In 1869, the ranch registered its "Running W" brand, which remains the King Ranchs official mark today. At the time, the ranch grazed cattle, horses, sheep and goats. By the mid-1870s, though, the ranchs hallmark stock had become the hardy Texas Longhorn. The ranch also boasted several Brahman bulls, as well as Beef Shorthorns and Herefords.</p><br>
<p>The Brahmans, which were native to South Asia, were well adapted to thrive in South Texas hot climate; they were crossed with the ranchs Beef Shorthorns to produce the ranch&#39;s own trademark stock — the Santa Gertrudis cattle, which were recognized as a breed in 1940.</p><br>
<p>Lea portrays King&#39;s purchase of the Ranch as motivated by his wooing of Henrietta Maria Morse Chamberlain (1832–1925), whom he married in the First Presbyterian Church, Brownsville, on Sunday, December 10, 1854. The King Ranch HK livestock brand stands for Henrietta King.</p><br>
<p>During the United States Civil War, the disruption of the flow of cattle to market initially caused a drop in beef prices. In 1861, the price of cattle dropped to $2 per head, but it rose again to $11 per head by August 1862.</p><br>
<p>The 1863-1864 winter pushed uncounted cattle south toward the Nueces River and Rio Grande. After the Civil War, the Texas Rangers were disbanded during the reconstruction of the United States. It became very tempting and low-risk to simply herd cattle across the Nueces or Rio Grande.</p><br>
<p>Even in this time of loss, by 1869, King was able to round up 48,664 of an estimated 84,000 head of cattle. Allowing for 10,000 remaining, King claimed a loss of 33,827 head from 1869 to 1872. To handle depredations (rustling), the ranchers formed the Stock Raisers Association of Western Texas in 1870; Mifflin Kenedy led the first meeting. By 1874, the Texas Rangers were re-established, and were a factor in controlling the depredations.</p><br>
<p>By 1870, 300,000 head of cattle made their way from the West to the railroads of Kansas, and thence to the stockyards of Chicago. On a Texas ranch, a steer worth $11 would bring $20 from a buyer in Abilene. The buyer in turn could ask $31.50 at the Union Stock Yards. King could drive his cattle for a hundred days to the railheads of Kansas.</p><br>
<p>By 1871, though, 700,000 head of cattle caused a market glut, which King avoided by personal negotiation in Abilene.</p><br>
<p>King managed to avoid the September 19, 1873, Black Friday panic by selling early. During the lean year that followed, King continued to fence his land, and manage his cattle, horses, and sheep.</p><br>
<p>One technique King used to manage costs was to make his trail bosses the owners of the herd. The bosses would sign a note for the cattle, which they would begin to drive to market in February of each year, for the 100-day drive. The bosses were also the employers of the outfit. Upon the sale of the herd to the northern buyers, the trail bosses could relieve their indebtedness, and earn a profit greater than their ordinary wages.</p><br>
<p>Richard King died in 1885. At the death of Henrietta King in 1925, the ranch totaled 1.2 million acres that were divided among her heirs. Henrietta Kings sole surviving child, Alice Gertrudis Kleberg, and her husband Robert J. Kleberg Jr. inherited over 800,000 acres that were incorporated as the King Ranch in 1934. The appraisers Statement of Gross Estate, Mrs. H. M. King listed a net total of $5.4 million, as the owner of 997,444.56 acres (4,036.5 km), which did not include the Santa Gertrudis headquarters, nor did it include the Klebergs Stillman and Lasater tracts, which were not of the estate. Her son-in-law, Bob Kleberg, said "A valuation of four to five dollars an acre ($1236/km) on a million acres (4000 km) of raw ranchland was about right, but it took a long time for the Government to admit it." By 1929, the taxes ($859,000) had been paid up, in installments, but the trustees had to borrow money, so by the market crash of 1929, Henrietta Kings estate was in debt $3,000,000.</p><br>
<p>Robert Justus Kleberg Jr. and Alice Gertrudis King had five children, including a son named Robert J. Kleberg, III. In 1933, Robert J. Kleberg, III leased the exploration and drilling rights on the ranch to Humble Oil of Houston, Texas, for $127,824, in exchange for the usual royalty of 1/8th of the sale price for all oil and gas produced from the property. Humble Oil loaned enough money to pay the debts of the H.M. King estate, secured by a first mortgage on the land. Humble struck oil and gas by 1939. During all of this, the Ranch was a going concern, with a net profit of $227,382, as early as 1926. Robert Kleberg III was married to Helen Campbell, and together they had a daughter they named Helen.</p><br>
<p>Lauro Cavazos, who served as the first Hispanic United States Cabinet officer, was born on the King Ranch during his father&#39;s service as a ranch foreman in January, 1927.</p><br>
<p>On November 18, 1936, Luther Blanton and his son, John, trespassed on the ranch by crawling through the fence surrounding it. They had intended to hunt ducks and nearby residents reported hearing shots fired. Shortly thereafter, locals organized a group to force their way onto the ranch around the area where they were known to have gone hunting. However, neither Blanton nor his son were ever seen again. A subsequent police investigation resulted in no arrests. Although most residents suspected them being murdered by ranch guards for trespassing, it remains a long-standing unsolved mystery.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the Navy purchased lots of land to construct the Kingsville Naval Outlying Fields to support naval flight training. Many of these airfields have since been demolished and reverted to farmland.</p><br>
<p>In February 1961, National Geographic reported that the ranch covered 980,000 acres.</p><br>
<p>In 1999 (since the 2001 model year to present), Ford began using the King Ranch brand on its vehicles. Over the years there have been King Ranch versions of the F-150, Super Duty, Explorer, and Expedition. They include dark brown leather seats, and the badges show the King Ranch Running W brand.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Santa Gertrudis Independent School District&#39;s original elementary and middle school facility, built in 1917, was leased from the King Ranch and located on ranch property (the Santa Gertrudis portion). It was a 25,209 ft&sup2, 13 classroom complex with a classroom building, four annexes, two storage structures, and a gymnasium that had the possibility of being used for other reasons. The district now has a new campus built by PBK Architects.</p><br>
<p>Under Texas law, the Santa Gertrudis ISD area is in the boundary of Coastal Bend College (referred to in legislation under its former name, "Bee County College").</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Edna Ferbers novel Giant, which was turned into a film of the same name, takes place on King Ranch. The film and novel depict several events in the ranchs history, such as the discovery of oil on the property.</p><br>
<p>Forever Texas, the 2022 historical western novel by bestselling authors William W. Johnstone and J.A. Johnstone, is based on the true story of the founding of King Ranch.</p><br>
<p>In the James Michener novel Centennial, the Venneford Ranch was said to be patterned after the King Ranch.</p><br>
<p>The historical fiction novel Lords of the Land by Matt Braun is based on the King Ranch and its founder, although names and some circumstance have been altered.</p><br>
<p>A cowboys perspective on the King Ranch subsidiary in Australia, the cattle station Brunette Downs, is captured in the 2012 autobiography by Nick Campbell-Jones Dont Die Wondering. Campbell-Jones was a jackaroo (Australian cowboy) who started at Brunette Downs in 1963 and worked his way up to overseer and assistant manager before leaving in 1975.</p><br>
<p>Starr Family Home State Historic Site is a 3.1 acre historical site operated by the Texas Historical Commission in downtown Marshall, Texas. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. On January 1, 2008, the site was transferred from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department to the Texas Historical Commission.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The site encompasses several structures used by the Starr Family; most notably the main house or Starr Home, Maplecroft, and Rosemont Cottage. Rosemont Cottage is the only remaining portion of Rosemont, the antebellum plantation home that used to stand behind Maplecroft.</p><br>
<p>The site portrays 150 years and four generations of one of the most influential political families in the periods of the Republic of Texas and early statehood. The family donated the site to the State of Texas in 1976 and in 1982 the site was enlarged to include all of the Starr family residences. The Starrs continued to live at the site until 1985; the site was opened to the public in 1986 as a Texas state park.</p><br>
<p>James Frank Starr commissioned the construction of the main attraction of the park, Maplecroft. The 1871 Starr home is a two-story, frame, modified late Greek Revival structure with some Victorian styling. Craftsmen, such as shipwrights, and building materials were shipped from New Orleans to Marshall.</p><br>
<p>In 1985, the house and three acres encompassing seven historic buildings was left to the State of Texas upon the death of the last owner, Mrs. Clara Pope Willoughby.</p><br>
<p>Harvard Square is a triangular plaza at the intersection of Massachusetts Avenue, Brattle Street and John F. Kennedy Street near the center of Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The term "Harvard Square" is also used to delineate the business district and Harvard University surrounding that intersection, which is the historic center of Cambridge. Adjacent to Harvard Yard, the historic heart of Harvard University, the Square  functions as a commercial center for Harvard students, as well as residents of western Cambridge, the western and northern neighborhoods and the inner suburbs of Boston. The Square is served by Harvard station, a major MBTA Red Line subway and a bus transportation hub.</p><br>
<p>The name "Harvard Square" can also refer to the entire neighborhood surrounding this intersection for several blocks in each direction, including Brattle Square, a block away, and the nearby Cambridge Common. The Common is a park area with a playground, baseball field, and a number of monuments, several relating to the Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The heart of Harvard Square is the junction of Massachusetts Avenue and Brattle Street. Massachusetts Avenue enters from the southeast (a few miles after crossing the Charles River from Boston at MIT), and turns sharply to the north at the intersection, which is dominated by a large pedestrian space incorporating the current MBTA subway headhouse (entrance), an older subway headhouse building which formerly housed a newsstand, a visitor information kiosk, and a small open-air performance space ("The Pit"). Brattle Street and John F. Kennedy Street merge from the southwest, joining Massachusetts Avenue at 1 Brattle Street, where another newsstand used to be located. The Harvard/MIT Cooperative Society main building forms the western streetwall at the intersection, along with a bank and some retail shops.</p><br>
<h3>Nearby places</h3><br>
<p>The walled enclosure of Harvard Yard is adjacent, with Harvard University, Harvard Extension School, Harvard Art Museums, Semitic Museum, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, and Museum of Natural History just short walks away.</p><br>
<p>Other institutions in the general neighborhood include the Cambridge Public Library, Lesley University, the Longy School of Music, the Episcopal Divinity School, the Cambridge Rindge and Latin School, American Repertory Theater, the Cooper-Frost-Austin House, the Hooper-Lee-Nichols House, and the Longfellow House–Washington&#39;s Headquarters National Historic Site.</p><br>
<p>The high pedestrian traffic makes Harvard Square and Brattle Square, a block away, a gathering place for street musicians and buskers (who must obtain a permit from the Cambridge Arts Council). Singer-songwriter Tracy Chapman, who attended nearby Tufts University, is known to have played here during her college years. Amanda Palmer, of the Dresden Dolls, regularly performed here as a "living statue". Another frequent performer over the years has been indie rock guitarist Mary Lou Lord. The Flying Karamazov Brothers also performed regularly in Brattle Square.</p><br>
<p>A small bronze statue of "Doo Doo," a puppet created by Igor Fokin, sits at the corner of Brattle and Eliot streets, in honor of Fokin and all the street performers. Fokin performed regularly in Brattle Square after immigrating from Russa and before his untimely death.</p><br>
<h3>Other features</h3><br>
<p>Until 1984, the Harvard Square stop was the northern terminus of the Red Line, and it still functions as a major transfer station between subway, bus, and trackless trolley. Most of the bus lines serving the area from the north and west run through a tunnel adjacent to the subway tunnel. Originally built for streetcars (which last ran in 1958) and still used by trackless trolleys as well as ordinary buses, the tunnel lessens bus traffic in central Harvard Square, and lets buses cross the Square without encountering automobile traffic. The tunnel also allows covered access between the subway and the buses.</p><br>
<p>At the center of the Square is the old Harvard Square Subway Kiosk, which held a newsstand Out of Town News until its close in 2020. A public motion art installation, Lumen Eclipse, shows monthly exhibitions of local, national, and international artists.</p><br>
<p>In the southwest of the neighborhood, on Mount Auburn St, stands the Igor Fokin Memorial. This memorial, created by sculptor Konstantin Simun, pays tribute not only to the late puppeteer, but to all street performers that are an integral part of the square.</p><br>
<p>A number of public squares dot the surrounding streets, notably Brattle Square and Winthrop Square, hosting a wide variety of street performers throughout the year. Brattle Street itself is home to the Brattle Theater (a non-profit arthouse theater) and the American Repertory Theater. The John F. Kennedy Memorial Park, one block further down JFK Street, is on the bank of the Charles River. Cambridge Common is two blocks north.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Although today a commercial center, the Square had famous residents in earlier periods, including the colonial poet Anne Bradstreet.</p><br>
<h3>Transformation</h3><br>
<p>Discussions of how the Square has changed in recent years usually center on the gentrification of the Harvard Square neighborhood and Cambridge in general. The Square also used to be a neighborhood shopping center, including a grocery store (Sages) and a Woolworth&#39;s five and ten. Although a hardware store (Dickson Hardware at 26 Brattle Street) survived until 2021 amid chain drug stores and bank branches, the Square is mainly a regional rather than neighborhood shopping destination, serving students and commuters.</p><br>
<p>In 1981 and 1987 the Harvard Square Theater was converted into a multiplex cinema; it later became part of the Loews Cineplex Entertainment chain and then closed on July 8, 2012. During the late 1990s, some locally run businesses with long-time shopfronts on the Square&mdash;including the unusual Tasty Diner, a tiny sandwich shop open long hours, and the Wursthaus, a German restaurant with an extensive beer menu&mdash;closed to make way for national chains. Elsies Lunch, a long-popular deli, has also closed; what remained of its small corner storefront space facing Lowell House on Mount Auburn Street is now occupied by an ATM. Another long-time restaurant, the 64-year-old Leos Place, closed in December 2013 when the landlord of the property terminated their lease.</p><br>
<p>The student co-op, the Harvard/MIT Cooperative Society ("The Coop", founded in 1882) is now managed by Barnes & Noble, though it is still overseen by a board elected by its membership of Harvard and MIT students and staff. Schoenhof&#39;s Foreign Books is owned by the French Éditions Gallimard. Major bookstores Paperback Booksmith, Reading International, and Barilari Books had closed by the end of the 1990s. WordsWorth Books at 30 Brattle Street closed in 2004, after 29 years as a fixture in the Square. In the same year, the famous Grolier Poetry Bookshop announced that it would be sold (although it survived under new management). Globe Corner Bookstore converted to an exclusively online business, serving its last walk-in customer on July 4, 2011.</p><br>
<p>Following national trends, the former Harvard Trust Company has been absorbed into the national Bank of America through a series of mergers. Several establishments remain as longstanding, locally-run businesses with unique styles. Examples include Leavitt & Peirce tobacconists (est. 1883), Laflamme Barber Shop (est. 1898), Harvard Book Store (est. 1932), Cardullos Gourmet Shoppe (est. 1950), Charlies Kitchen (est. 1951), the Brattle Theater (est. 1953), the Hong Kong Chinese restaurant (est. 1954), Club Passim (est. 1958), Café Pamplona (est. 1959), Mr. Bartleys Burger Cottage (est. 1960), Million Year Picnic comics (est. 1970), Algiers Coffee House (est. 1970), and Grendels Den (est. 1971).</p><br>
<h2>In film and other media</h2><br>
<p>The 1969 film Goodbye, Columbus takes place in Harvard Square near the film&#39;s conclusion, after the Richard Benjamin character learns that his girlfriend, Brenda Potimkin (played by Ali MacGraw), an undergraduate at Radcliffe College, had left her diaphragm in the top drawer of her bureau at home for her mother to discover.</p><br>
<p>The 1970 film Love Story, by the late Harvard University alumnus and Yale University professor of classics Erich Segal, takes place almost entirely in and around Harvard Square during its first two-thirds, while Harvard undergraduates Oliver Barrett and Jenny Cavalieri meet; finish college; get married; and Oliver goes to Harvard Law School while Jenny teaches school, living in a second-story walk-up in Agassiz. The film continues to be screened annually to incoming freshmen at Harvard College during orientation week.</p><br>
<p>The 1973 film The Paper Chase, set at Harvard Law School, features Harvard Square landmarks of its era, including the old Out of Town Newsstand, the old MBTA Harvard station kiosk with its "8 Minutes to Park Street" sign, and the now-defunct Kupersmith&#39;s Florists.</p><br>
<p>The 1977 film Between the Lines features similar Harvard Square footage as well as aerial footage of the Back Bay.</p><br>
<p>The 1994 film With Honors has a scene filmed in Harvard Square in which the Out of Town Newsstand is featured. In the scene, Monty approaches Simon as he (Simon) is attempting to sell newspapers he took out of a vending machine.</p><br>
<p>Various parts of the 1997 film Good Will Hunting were filmed in and around Harvard Square, most notably at the former Tasty Sandwich Shop and the outdoor seating area of the square&#39;s largest Au Bon Pain café.</p><br>
<p>The 2005 documentary film Touching History; Harvard Square, the Bank, and The Tasty Diner chronicles the changing face of the Square, as a small diner (The Tasty) closes its doors to make way for a large retail space.</p><br>
<p>Ben Affleck shot portions of his film The Town (2010) in Grendel&#39;s Den on Winthrop Street, locally famous in the 1970s for its chocolate fondue.</p><br>
<p>The 2015 game Fallout 4 features Harvard Square as an in-game location. Though the layout of the surrounding area is not accurate, the Cambridge visitor&#39;s Center kiosk is present.</p><br>
<h3>"Car Talk Plaza"</h3><br>
<p>The radio show Car Talks offices occupied the third floor of the Abbott Building from 1992 until the shows end in 2014. At the beginning of every episode, hosts Tom and Ray Magliozzi would state they were broadcasting from "Car Talk Plaza" in Harvard (though the show itself was recorded at the WBUR Studio in Boston). Local tourism and business leaders likewise refer to the area colloquially as "Car Talk Plaza". The offices window, which faces the square, reads "Dewey Cheetham & Howe", a reference to The Three Stooges. Though the former office is now a yoga studio, the window signage has remained. In the early 2020s, while redeveloping the Abbott Building, the executive director of the Cambridge Historical Commission ensured the signs preservation, calling it "a character-defining feature of building". In 2019, a commemorative plaque for Tom Magliozzi - who died in 2014 - was installed outside the Abbott Building beside the Harvard Red Line terminal. Harvard Square, called "Car Talk Plaza", is also the setting of Click and Clack&#39;s As the Wrench Turns, an animated television spin-off of Car Talk.</p><br>
<p>Harvard Square, view in 1869.jpgHarvard Square in 1869</p><br>
<p>Cambridge Harvard Square.JPGHarvard Square, May 2004</p><br>
<p>Information booth in Harvard Square, October 2005.jpgHarvard Square on a rainy day</p><br>
<p>Harvardbookstore.jpgHarvard Book Store at dusk</p><br>
<p>Church Street Cambridge MA Lowes Cinema 24 June 2007.jpgformer Loews Movie Theatre, Church Street (now closed)</p><br>
<p>Harvard Square, February 2022.jpgStorefronts along Massachusetts Ave. in winter</p><br>
<p>The Basilica of St. Francis Xavier is a parish church in the Archdiocese of Dubuque located in Dyersville, Iowa, United States. The church was named in honor of the missionary Saint Francis Xavier. It was raised to the status of a minor basilica in 1956. The church and rectory were listed together on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Dyersville was originally settled by English immigrants. Within a few years the English moved on, and many German immigrants began to arrive in the area. A parish was founded to serve these immigrants in 1859. The first St. Francis Xavier Church was completed in 1862. The parish grew quickly and the church had to be doubled in size by 1869. By 1880, it became clear that with the increasing Catholic population of Dyersville and the surrounding area, the old church building would no longer be adequate.</p><br>
<p>A new church building program was begun in the mid-1880s. The parish decided on a large Gothic Revival style building in order to serve the increased population. Dubuque architects Fridolin Heer Sr. and his son Fridolin Heer Jr. designed the church. The priest at the time, Anton Kortenkamp (1834-1889), also had the foresight to have the altar placed upon a foundation of solid rock, which is one of the requirements for an altar to be consecrated. Construction was begun in 1887, and the cornerstone was laid on June 3, 1888. The new church was dedicated by Bishop John Hennessy on December 3, 1889. When the building was dedicated, special trains brought people from all over the state of Iowa to witness the ceremony. It cost approximately $100,000 to build the church. After the completion of the present building, the old church was converted into classrooms. It was later torn down after a new school was completed. Electric lights were added to the church in 1904.</p><br>
<p>The interior of the church is decorated with a number of paintings and frescoes. Much of this work was done by Milwaukee artists Clotilda and Alphonse Brielmaier from 1904 to 1905. Work to either touch-up the original frescoes or to partially cover some of them was done in 1930 and 1955.</p><br>
<p>The rectory was built to the west of the church in 1935. The 68 by brick residence contains 14 rooms. The rooms are a combination of private living space and offices. A. J. Osterhaus Construction of Dyersville was the contractor who built the rectory. A garage and a passageway connects it to the basilica.</p><br>
<p>The move to elevate St. Francis Xavier to a minor basilica began in the 1940s. Then-Father Mathias M. Hoffman, who had served as a military chaplain in Europe in World War I and World War II, began to advance the cause to Vatican officials. The cause was furthered when a high ranking German Cardinal, Konrad von Preysing, visited the church. In the mid-1950s the church building was consecrated. On the interior there are a number of small gold crosses on the side walls, marking the twelve places where the church walls were anointed with chrism when the church was consecrated. Once consecrated a church building may never be used for any other purpose and only a consecrated church can be elevated to the rank of a basilica. Previously the parish had worked hard to attain and maintain a debt-free status, a preliminary requirement before a church can be consecrated.</p><br>
<p>On May 11, 1956, the church was elevated to the rank of a minor basilica by Pope Pius XII. It was the twelfth church in the United States to receive this honor. A mass officially naming the church as a basilica attracted crowds from all over the state, as well as many high ranking clergy.</p><br>
<p>An addition was made to the south side of the basilica in 1989. It contains a handicapped elevator, restrooms and access to the basement of the basilica.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-1990s, the parish began to offer a Tridentine Mass at 12:00 p.m. on Sundays. This Mass was either said or sung in Latin according to the 1962 Rite. Currently, the Noon Mass is offered in Spanish.</p><br>
<p>The interior of the church was refurbished from 2000 to 2001. The paintings and frescoes were cleaned. Other frescoes that were hidden under coats of paint were restored. The baldacchino, the main altars, the side altars, and the statues were cleaned and restored. This was possible due to a gift from a parishioner.</p><br>
<h2>The church building</h2><br>
<p>The basilica features Ruskinian Gothic Revival architecture. The two steeples are 212 ft tall with 14 ft crosses that cap the spires. This helps make the church visible from miles away across the rolling lightly forested farmland. Pilots often use these steeples as landmarks during flights. The church is a rectangular structure that measures 174.5 by and is 76 ft high. It has a polygonal apse on its west side. The interior includes columns and vaulted ceilings. The church has a seating capacity of about 1,000 people. There are about 5,000 people total in the parish.</p><br>
<p>The church has 64 large cathedral glass windows. There are two notable windows in the church. The first is the rose window above the entrances to the church, installed in 1959. It replaced a conventional church window on which the framework had become deteriorated. An Indian motif was selected in recognition of many local Indian tribes that inhabited this area 150 years earlier.</p><br>
<p>The two side altars were designed by J. E. Brielmaier and erected by the Dubuque Altar Company in March 1897. They measure 36 by and are made of butternut. The ornate pulpit from 1906 sits to the left of the altar. Also carved in butternut, it was originally located in the nave and had a carved canopy over it. It was moved into chancel in the 1940s and the canopy was removed at that time. The images carved on the pulpit include the Evangelists: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John as well as the Apostles Peter and Paul; and five Doctors of the Western Church: Ambrose, Jerome, Gregory, Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. A free-standing altar was commissioned from the John C. Kaiser Company of Dubuque and created by Fritz Ganshirt. It was installed in 1973.</p><br>
<p>Above the high altar is a large central painting of the heavenly liturgy mentioned in Revelations 5: the Adoration of the Mystical Lamb of God. To the right are images of the prophets that include John the Baptist, Noah holding the ark, David playing the harp, Melichisedech holding bread and wine, Moses holding the Ten Commandments, and the Three Magi with their gifts. The image of Msgr. M.M. Hoffmann, the pastor when the church was named a basilica, was added in 2000. To the left are images of saints that include the Blessed Virgin Mary, George with a spear, Lawrence with a gridiron, Stephen with stones, Joseph with a lily, Rose of Lima with a crown of roses, Peter with keys, Paul with sword, Henry the King, Boniface, Francis of Assisi, Francis Xavier, Catherine, and Cecilia playing the organ. An image of the Rev. George W. Heer, who was pastor of the parish when the original painting was done, was added during its restoration.</p><br>
<p>The Stations of the Cross that line side walls were installed in 1959. The plaster bas reliefs replaced the original set that dated from 1870, which had deteriorated.</p><br>
<p>The images on the center aisle were installed in 1998. It is the first floor of its kind in the United States to combine "epoxy based terrazzo, and computer generated water jet laser cutting for the brass molds." The symbols in the floor include the coats of arms of the Archdiocese of Dubuque, Pope Pius XII, the basilica, and the papal insignia of the tiara and keys.</p><br>
<p>In 1971 a new organ was installed in the church that replaced the basilica&#39;s original pipe organ, which dated from 1913. The 27-rank organ located in the rear gallery is a custom made instrument designed for the basilica by the Wicks Organ Company of Highland, Illinois. The organ was designed keeping in mind the size of the church and the acoustical qualities of the building.</p><br>
<p>Because one of the roles of the basilica is to serve as the pope&#39;s church in the event he would visit the area, the church features a special bell called a tintinnabulum, and an umbrella called an umbraculum.</p><br>
<h2>Panoramas</h2><br>
<p>The Great Falls of the Passaic River is a prominent waterfall, 77 ft high, on the Passaic River in the city of Paterson in Passaic County, New Jersey. One of the United States&#39; largest waterfalls, it played a significant role in the early industrial development of New Jersey starting in the earliest days of the nation. The falls and surrounding area are protected as part of the Paterson Great Falls National Historical Park, administered by the National Park Service. Congress authorized its establishment in 2009.</p><br>
<p>In 1967 it was designated a National Natural Landmark together with Garret Mountain Reservation. The falls and the surrounding neighborhood have also been designated as a National Historic Landmark District since 1976. The Great Falls&#39; raceway and power systems were designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark and a National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark in 1977.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Formation and early history</h3><br>
<p>Geologically, the falls were formed at the end of the last ice age approximately 13,000 years ago. Formerly the Passaic had followed a shorter course through the Watchung Mountains near present-day Summit. As the glacier receded, the river&#39;s previous course was blocked by a newly formed moraine. A large lake, called Glacial Lake Passaic, formed behind the Watchungs. As the ice receded, the river found a new circuitous route around the north end of the Watchungs, carving the spectacular falls through the underlying basalt, which was formed approximately 200 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The falls later became the site of a habitation of the historic Lenape Native Americans, who followed earlier indigenous cultures in the region. Later, in the colonial era, Dutch settlers developed a community here beginning in the 1690s.</p><br>
<h3>Industrial development</h3><br>
<p>In 1778, Alexander Hamilton visited the falls and was impressed by its potential for industry. Later when Hamilton was the nations Secretary of Treasury, he selected the site of the nations first planned industrial city, which he called a "national manufactory." In 1791, Hamilton helped found the Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures (S.U.M.), a state-chartered private corporation to fulfill this vision. The town of Paterson was founded by the society and named after New Jersey Governor William Paterson, in appreciation of his efforts to promote the society.</p><br>
<p>Hamilton commissioned civil engineer Pierre Charles L&#39;Enfant, responsible for the layout of the new capital at Washington, D.C., to design the system of canals known as raceways to supply the power for the watermills in the new town. As a result, Paterson became the nucleus for a burgeoning mill industry. In 1792, David Godwin was commissioned to build the first water-powered cotton spinning mill in New Jersey. He subsequently built the first dam on the falls; it was a structure made of wood.</p><br>
<p>In 1812, this was the site of the states first continuous roll paper mill. Other 19th-century industries that produced goods using the falls as a power source include the Rogers Locomotive Works (1832), Colts Manufacturing Company, for the Colt revolver (1837), and the construction of the USS Holland (SS-1) (1898). The oldest extant structure in the historic district is the Phoenix Mill, built in 1813.</p><br>
<p>Workers were exploited, especially new immigrants from Europe, who often did not speak English. They began to seek better working conditions. The industrial area became the site of labor unrest, and it was a center for the 1913 Paterson silk strike. Facing harsh conditions in factories, immigrant workers staged numerous strikes during and after the Great War, adding to social tensions of the time. They organized the first labor movements in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The SUM society continued operation until 1945, when its charter and property were sold to the city of Paterson. The area fell into disuse during a period of restructuring that resulted in a steep decline of industry in the region during the mid to late 20th century. In 1971, concerned residents established the Great Falls Preservation and Development Corporation to restore and redevelop the historic mill buildings and raceways as artifacts of industrial history.</p><br>
<h3>Great Falls State Park</h3><br>
<p>The State of New Jersey announced plans for a new urban state park in Paterson surrounding the Great Falls, called Great Falls State Park, in 2007. The master plan for the park called for utilizing surrounding industrial areas for parklands that include a trail network and recreation areas, and creating new areas to view the falls. These plans were superseded by the establishment of Great Falls National Historical Park.</p><br>
<h3>National Historical Park</h3><br>
<p>On March 30, 2009, President Obama signed the Omnibus Public Land Management Act</p><br>
<h2>Viewing the falls</h2><br>
<p>The Falls are viewable from Haines Overlook Park on the south and Mary Ellen Kramer Park on the north. Drive-by viewing is available from McBride Avenue where it crosses the river just above the Falls. A footbridge over the Falls gorge (historically, the eighth such bridge to span this chasm) also serves as an outlook point. A visitor&#39;s center at the corner of Spruce and McBride avenues, in the Great Falls Historic District, provides a historical overview of the falls and the industrial and cultural history of Paterson. A record 177,000 visitors went to the Great Falls in 2016.</p><br>
<h2>National Natural Landmark</h2><br>
<p>The Great Falls of Paterson – Garret Mountain is a National Natural Landmark designated in January 1967 and expanded in April 1967 to include nearby Garret Mountain. Together they help demonstrate how jointed basaltic lava flow shaped the geology of the area during the Early Mesozoic period through both extrusion and intrusion.</p><br>
<p>The designation protects the site from federal development, but not from local and state development. Redevelopment of the decayed adjacent industrial areas has been an ongoing controversial topic. An attempt in the 1990s to redevelop the adjacent Allied Textile Printing Co. (ATP) facility, destroyed by fire in the 1980s, into prefabricated townhouses was initially approved by the city but later repelled by a coalition of local citizens seeking to preserve the historic character of the district.</p><br>
<h2>Hydroelectric facility</h2><br>
<p>The hydroelectric plant at the falls is operated by Eagle Creek Renewable Energy, which is considering commissioning another facility downstream at the Dundee Dam.</p><br>
<p>The Great Falls hydroelectric plant has three Kaplan type turbines with a total capacity of 10.95 Mwe. Flow through each turbine is 710 cfs, with a total flow of 2,130 cfs, 1,377 MGD. Three 8.5&#39; diameter penstocks feed the turbines, with a velocity 12.5 ft/sec and 8.5 mph.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The unique history of the Great Falls and the city were described in the five-volume philosophical poem Paterson by William Carlos Williams. Among the episodes described in Williams&#39; poem is the 1827 leap over the falls by Sam Patch, who later became the first known person to perform a stunt at Niagara Falls. The 2016 film Paterson, directed by Jim Jarmusch, is partly inspired by the works of Williams and features the falls as a primary location.</p><br>
<p>The Great Falls were also featured in the pilot of the HBO crime drama The Sopranos, as well as in the series&#39; sixth episode, in which Mikey Palmice and another associate throw a drug dealer off the bridge and into the falls to his death.</p><br>
<p>The Hall of State  is a building in Dallas&#39;s Fair Park that commemorates the history of the USA state of Texas and is considered one of the best examples of Art Deco architecture in the state. It was designed and built for the Texas Centennial Exposition.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Built in 1936 at the astronomical (especially during the Great Depression) price of $1.2 million, the building was the most expensive per unit area of any structure built in Texas. It was designed for the centennial of the Republic of Texas by architect Donald Barthelme in the beaux arts style and is considered one of the most representative examples of art deco architecture in Texas. According to documents from the Dallas Historical Society Centennial archives collection, John F. Livers designed and manufactured the majority of the Art Deco ornamental metalwork at his Livers Lighting and Bronze Company in Kansas City, Missouri, including the light fixtures. The Hall of State is the culmination of the 1,500 ft long Esplanade of State which is flanked by six exhibition pavilions and features a long reflecting pool. It was built using Texas limestone and features memorials to many of the heroes of Texas history.</p><br>
<h2>Current</h2><br>
<p>The Dallas Historical Society has been responsible for managing the Hall of State since 1938. The Hall of State is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a part of Fair Park. In 1986, the building was restored at a cost of approximately $1.5 million, and the G.B. Dealey Library was opened.</p><br>
<p>The G.B. Dealey Library, located in the East Texas room of the Hall of State, holds more than ten thousand bound volumes and three million historic documents, including Sam Houston&#39;s handwritten account of the battle of San Jacinto.</p><br>
<p>The Dallas Historical Society rents the Hall of State for events and provides guided tours to school groups.</p><br>
<p>The structure became a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1981.</p><br>
<p>The American Museum of the Miniature Arts is currently located at the Hall of State.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The curved exedra at the entrance to the Hall of Texas features 76 ft tall limestone pillars sit in front of blue tiles designed to evoke the state&#39;s flower, the bluebonnet (Lupinus texensis). In the center, above the entrance is an 11 ft bronze with gold leaf statue by Allie Tennant of the "Tejas Warrior": an archer holds high a bow without an arrow, meant to symbolize peace.</p><br>
<p>Inside the Hall of State is the Hall of Heroes, which features six bronze statues of James Fannin, Mirabeau B. Lamar, Stephen F. Austin, Sam Houston, Thomas Jefferson Rusk and William B. Travis. There are also bronze plaques that commemorate the Battle of the Alamo and the Battle of San Jacinto. Outside, a statue of Robert L. Thornton, benefactor of the State Fair of Texas and former Mayor of Dallas stands, overlooking the esplanade.</p><br>
<p>On the exterior frieze, the Hall of State commemorates 60 prominent historical figures in Texas&#39; history:</p><br>
<p>Edward Burleson</p><br>
<p>Branch Tanner Archer</p><br>
<p>Thomas Jefferson Rusk</p><br>
<p>William B. Travis</p><br>
<p>James Stephen Hogg</p><br>
<p>Richard Ellis</p><br>
<p>Mirabeau B. Lamar</p><br>
<p>Ben Milam</p><br>
<p>David G. Burnet</p><br>
<p>John Coffee "Jack" Hays</p><br>
<p>James Smith (Texas General)</p><br>
<p>Albert Sidney Johnston</p><br>
<p>Stephen F. Austin</p><br>
<p>James Bonham</p><br>
<p>Davy Crockett</p><br>
<p>Sam Houston</p><br>
<p>J. Pinckney Henderson</p><br>
<p>Oran M. Roberts</p><br>
<p>Lorenzo de Zavala</p><br>
<p>James Bowie</p><br>
<p>John Reagan</p><br>
<p>Anson Jones</p><br>
<p>James Fannin</p><br>
<p>Gail Borden</p><br>
<p>William H. Wharton</p><br>
<p>Peter Bell</p><br>
<p>José Antonio Navarro</p><br>
<p>Elisha M. Pease</p><br>
<p>Samuel May Williams</p><br>
<p>Ben McCulloch</p><br>
<p>James W. Robinson</p><br>
<p>Matthew Caldwell</p><br>
<p>James Collinsworth</p><br>
<p>John Hemphill</p><br>
<p>George Childress</p><br>
<p>Thomas Green</p><br>
<p>R.T. Wheeler</p><br>
<p>William B. Franklin</p><br>
<p>Henry Wax Karnes</p><br>
<p>Moseley Baker</p><br>
<p>Walter P. Lane</p><br>
<p>Patrick Churchill Jack</p><br>
<p>Francisco Vásquez de Coronado</p><br>
<p>Alonso Alvarez de Pineda</p><br>
<p>Alonso de León</p><br>
<p>Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca</p><br>
<p>Hamilton Prieleaux Bee</p><br>
<p>William Read Scurry</p><br>
<p>Memucan Hunt Jr</p><br>
<p>Frank Johnson</p><br>
<p>Samuel Price Carson</p><br>
<p>Sidney Sherman</p><br>
<p>Abner Smith Lipscomb</p><br>
<p>George Washington Hockley</p><br>
<p>Henry Weidner Baylor</p><br>
<p>Robert McAlpin Williamson</p><br>
<p>Menefee (either William Menefee or John Menefee)</p><br>
<p>Thomas Jefferson Chambers</p><br>
<p>Isaac Van Zandt</p><br>
<p>Thomas S. Lubbock</p><br>
<p>Fort Ross  is a former Russian establishment on the west coast of North America in what is now Sonoma County, California. It was the hub of the southernmost Russian settlements in North America from 1812 to 1841. Notably, it was the first multi-ethnic community in northern California, with a combination of Native Californians, Native Alaskans, Russians, Finns, and Swedes. It has been the subject of archaeological investigation and is a California Historical Landmark, a National Historic Landmark, and on the National Register of Historic Places. It is part of California&#39;s Fort Ross State Historic Park.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The present name of Fort Ross appears first on a French chart published in 1842 by Eugène Duflot de Mofras, who visited California in 1840. The name of the fort is said to derive from the Russian word rus or ros, the same root as the word "Russia" (Pоссия, Rossiya) (Fort Ross (Russian: Форт-Росс, Kashaya mé·ṭiʔni), originally Fortress Ross (pre-reformed Russian: Крѣпость Россъ, Krepostʹ Ross),</p><br>
<p>). According to William Bright, "Ross" is a poetic name for a Russian in the Russian language.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Beginning with Columbus in 1492, the Spanish presence in the Western Hemisphere traveled west across the Atlantic Ocean, then around or across the Americas to reach the Pacific Ocean. The Russian expansion, however, moved east across Siberia and the northern Pacific. In the early nineteenth century, Spanish and Russian expansion met along the coast of Spanish Alta California, with Russia pushing south and Spain pushing north. By that time, British and American fur trade companies had also established a coastal presence, in the Pacific Northwest, and Mexico was soon to gain independence. Mexico ceded Alta California to the United States of America following the Mexican–American War (1848). The history of the Russian Fort Ross settlement began during Spanish rule and ended under Mexican rule.</p><br>
<h3>Earliest people</h3><br>
<p>The earliest people known to have lived at the site were there during the Upper Archaic period (1000 B.C. – A.D. 500) and the Lower Emergent period (A.D. 1000–1500), but the main occupation began at A.D. 1500 and continued through 1812. Archaeological and ethnographic evidence suggest that the Native Californians lived in large and mostly permanent villages. In summer months, they had "special purpose camps" they would go to in order to get certain resources. This area was one of such camps, used for its access to tidal and marine resources.</p><br>
<p>Ethnographic evidence suggests that the area where Fort Ross would be located was a large part of Kashaya Pomo territory. Their name for the site was "Metini". Their exact arrival date is unknown, but according to linguistic and archaeological data, they moved to Metini sometime between 1,000 and 500 B.C. Archaeological data shows that the Kashaya Pomo increased their subsistence activities upon arrival at this site and gained greater diversity in their tool kits.</p><br>
<h3>Russian-American Company</h3><br>
<p>Russian personnel from the Alaskan colonies initially arrived in California aboard American ships. In 1803, American ship captains already involved in the sea otter maritime fur trade in California proposed several joint venture hunting expeditions to Alexander Andreyevich Baranov, on half shares using Russian supervisors and native Alaskan hunters to hunt fur seals and otters along the Alta and Baja Californian coast. Subsequent reports by the Russian hunting parties of uncolonized stretches of coast encouraged Baranov, the Chief Administrator of the Russian-American Company (RAC), to consider a settlement in California north of the limit of Spanish occupation in San Francisco. In 1806 the Russian Ambassador to Japan, and RAC director Nikolay Rezanov, undertook an exploratory trade mission to California to establish a formal means of procuring food supplies in exchange for Russian goods in San Francisco. While guests of the Spanish, Rezanov&#39;s captain, Lt. Khvostov, explored and charted the coast north of San Francisco Bay and found it completely unoccupied by other European powers. Upon his return to Novoarkhangelsk (New Archangel), Rezanov recommended to Baranov, and the Emperor Alexander, that a settlement be established in California.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ross was established by Commerce Counselor Ivan Kuskov of the Russian-American Company. In 1808 Baranov sent two ships, the Kadyak and the Sv. Nikolai, on an expedition south to establish settlements for the RAC with instructions to bury "secret signs" (possession plaques). Kuskov, on the Kadyak, was instructed to bury the plaques, with an appropriate possession ceremony, at Trinidad, Bodega Bay, and on the shore north of San Francisco, indicating Russian claims to the land. After sailing into Bodega Bay in 1809 on the Kad&#39;yak and returning to Novoarkhangelsk with beaver skins and 1,160 otter pelts, Baranov ordered Kuskov to return and establish an agricultural settlement in the area. After a failed attempt in 1811, Kuskov sailed the brig Chirikov back to Bodega Bay in March 1812, naming it the Gulf of Rumyantsev or Rumyantsev Bay (залив Румянцева, Zaliv Rumyantseva) in honor of the Russian Minister of Commerce Count Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantzev. He also named the Russian River the Slavic River (Славянка, Slavyanka). On his return, Kuskov found American otter hunting ships and otter now scarce in Bodega Bay. After exploring the area they ended up selecting a place 15 mi north that the native Kashaya Pomo people called Mad shui nui or Metini. Metini, the seasonal home of the Kashaya Pomo, had a modest anchorage and abundant natural resources and would become the Russian settlement of Fortress Ross.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ross was established as an agricultural base from which the northern settlements could be supplied with food, while also continuing trade with Alta California. Colony Ross referred to the entire area where Russians had settled. The colony included a port at Bodega Bay called Port Rumyantsev (порт Румянцев), a sealing station on the Farallon Islands 18 mi out to sea from San Francisco, and by 1830 three small farming communities called "ranchos" (Ранчо): Chernykh (Ранчо Егора Черных, Rancho Egora Chernykh) near present-day Graton, Khlebnikov (Ранчо Василия Хлебникова, Rancho Vasiliya Khlebnikova) a mile north of the present day town of Bodega in the Salmon Creek valley, and Kostromitinov (Ранчо Петра Костромитинова, Rancho Petra Kostromitinova) on the Russian River.</p><br>
<h3>Local enterprise</h3><br>
<p>In addition to farming and manufacturing, the Company carried on its fur-trading business at Fort Ross, but by 1817, after 20 years of intense hunting by Spanish, American and British ships—followed by Russian efforts—sea otters had been practically eliminated from the area.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ross was the site of Californias first windmills and shipbuilding. Russian scientists associated with the colony were among the first to record Californias cultural and natural history. The Russian managers introduced many European innovations such as glass windows, stoves, and all-wood housing into Alta California. Together with the surrounding settlement, Fort Ross was home to Russian subjects (which during the 19th and early 20th century included Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Belarusians, Finns, Baltic Germans, Estonians, Lithuanians, Latvians, Georgians, Circassians, Tatars, and numerous other nationalities and ethnic groups of the Russian Empire), as well as North Pacific Natives, Aleuts, Kashaya (Pomo), and Alaskan Creoles. The native populations of the Sonoma and Napa County regions were affected by smallpox, measles and other infectious diseases that were common across Asia, Europe, and Africa. One instance can be traced to the settlement of Fort Ross. However, the first vaccination in California history was carried out by the crew of the Kutuzov, a Russian-American Company vessel arriving from Callao, Peru which brought vaccine to Monterey in August, 1821. The Kutuzovs surgeon vaccinated 54 persons. Another instance of disease prevention was when a visiting Hudsons Bay Company hunting party was refused entry to the Colony in 1833, when it was feared that a malaria epidemic which had devastated the Central Valley was carried by its members. In 1837 a very deadly epidemic of smallpox that came from this settlement via New Archangel wiped out most native people in the Sonoma and Napa County regions.</p><br>
<h3>Mexican response</h3><br>
<p>Between 1824 and 1836 the Mexicans found during every exploratory effort north of present-day San Rafael and west of Sonoma increasing evidence of Russian presence. They discovered at least three Russian farms that had been established inland from Fort Ross. Governor José Figueroa wanted to counter the Russians&#39; gradual encroachment in Northern California. In 1834, he granted Rancho Petaluma to Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo. In 1835 he appointed Vallejo as Comandante of the Fourth Military District and Director of Colonization of the Northern Frontier, the highest military command in Northern California, and encouraged him to build the Presidio of Sonoma. To extend the settlements in the direction of Fort Ross, Vallejo granted his brother-in-law, Captain John B. R. Cooper, who had married his sister Encarnacion, Rancho El Molino (about 17,892 acre). The grant was confirmed by Governor Nicolás Gutiérrez in 1836.</p><br>
<p>Upon his arrival in Alta California in 1839, John Sutter was attracted to the land near the Sacramento River. To obtain the land and permission to settle in the territory, he went to the capital at Monterey and requested a grant from Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado. Alvarado saw Sutter&#39;s plan of establishing a colony in the Central Valley as useful in "buttressing the frontier which he was trying to maintain against Indians, Russians, Americans and British." Sutter persuaded Governor Alvarado to grant him 48,400 acre of land for the sake of curtailing American encroachment on the Mexican territory of California. Sutter was given the right to "represent in the Establishment of New Helvetia all the laws of the country, to function as political authority and dispenser of justice, in order to prevent the robberies committed by adventurers from the United States, to stop the invasion of savage Indians, and the hunting and trading by companies from the Columbia (river)." He named the settlement New Helvetia. In an 1841 inventory for John Sutter describes the settlement surrounding the fort: "twenty-four planked dwellings with glazed windows, a floor and a ceiling; each had a garden. There were eight sheds, eight bathhouses and ten kitchens."</p><br>
<h3>Decline of Fort Ross</h3><br>
<p>By 1839, the settlements agricultural importance had decreased considerably, the local population of fur-bearing marine mammals had been long depleted by international over-hunting, and the recently secularized California missions no longer supplemented the agricultural needs of the Alaskan colonies. Following the formal trade agreement in 1838 between the Russian-American Company in New Archangel and Hudsons Bay Company at Fort Vancouver and Fort Langley for their agricultural needs, the settlement at Fort Ross was no longer needed to supply the Alaskan colonies with food. The Russian-American Company consequently offered the settlement to various potential purchasers, and in 1841 it was sold to John Sutter, a Mexican citizen of Swiss origin, soon to be renowned for the discovery of gold at his lumber mill in the Sacramento valley. Although the settlement was sold for $30,000 to Sutter, some Russian historians assert the sum was never paid; therefore legal title of the settlement was never transferred to Sutter and the area still belongs to the Russian people. A recent Sutter biography however, asserts that Sutter&#39;s agent, Peter Burnett, paid the Russian-American Company agent William M. Steuart $19,788 in "notes and gold" on April 13, 1849, thereby settling the outstanding debt for Fort Ross and Bodega.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Possession of Fort Ross passed from Sutter through successive private hands and finally to George W. Call. In 1903, the stockade and about 3 acre of land were purchased from the Call family by the California Historical Landmarks Commission. Three years later it was turned over to the State of California for preservation and restoration as a state historic monument. Since then, the state has acquired more of the surrounding land for preservation purposes. California Department of Parks and Recreation as well as many volunteers put extensive efforts into restoration and reconstruction work in the Fort.</p><br>
<p>CA 1 once bisected Fort Ross. It entered from the northeast where the Kuskov House once stood, and exited through the main gate to the southwest. The road was eventually diverted, and the parts of the fort that had been demolished for the road were rebuilt. The old roadway can still be seen going from the main gate to the northwest; the rest (within the fort and extending northeast) has been removed. CA 1 moved to its current alignment sometime in the mid–late 1970s.</p><br>
<p>Most of the existing buildings on the site are reconstructions. Cooperative research efforts with Russian archives will help to correct interpretive errors present in structures that date from the Cold-War period. The only original structure remaining is the Rotchev House. Known as the "Commandants House" from the 1940s through the 1970s, it was the residence of the last manager, Aleksandr Rotchev. Renovated in 1836 from an existing structure, it was titled the "new commandants house" in the 1841 inventory to differentiate it from the "old commandants house" (Kuskov House). The Rotchev House, or in original documents, "Administrators House", is at the center of efforts to "re-interpret" Russias part in Californias colonial history. The Fort Ross Interpretive Association has received several federally funded grants to restore both exterior and interior elements. While its exterior has been partially restored, its interior is currently undergoing restoration to reflect the recent research that shows a more cosmopolitan and refined aspect of colonial life at the Fort.</p><br>
<p>The Fort Ross Chapel collapsed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake but much of the original structural woodwork remained and it was re-erected in 1916, but retained the appearance of the American ranch-period modifications when it was used as a stable. Several other restorations ensued, but none incorporated the information in Voznesenskys 1841 water-colour which portray the chapel with copper-clad cupola and tower, and red-metal roof. "The Fort Ross Chapel was found eligible for designation as a National Historic Landmark in 1969, architecturally significant as a rare USA example of a log church constructed on a Russian quadrilateral plan. An accidental fire destroyed the chapel on October 5, 1970. This loss of the original workmanship and materials of the chapel led to withdrawal of the Chapels Landmark designation in 1971. A complete reconstruction of the chapel was undertaken in 1973 and the Fort Ross settlement, as a whole, retains its National Historic Landmark designation." The current chapel was built during the intensive restoration activity that followed, but retains the American ranch period appearance.</p><br>
<p>A large orchard, including several original trees planted by the Russians, is located inland on Fort Ross Road in Sonoma County.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ross is now a part of Fort Ross State Historic Park, open to the public. In addition to fishing, hiking, surfing, exploring tide pools, picnicking, whale watching, and bird watching, the Park has become a popular destination for scuba divers, some of whom visit Fort Ross Reef. The wreckage of the SS Pomona lies just offshore Fort Ross State Park.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Ross Cemetery</h2><br>
<p>In 1990–1992 the Fort Ross Cemetery, located on a ridge adjacent to the settlement, was cleared and 135 gravesites were identified by archaeological excavations. The project was undertaken in collaboration with the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC), the Kodiak Area Native Association, the Kashaya Pomo, the Bodega Miwok, and the California Native American Heritage Commission. The graves were mostly contained in the main cemetery, located across the fort and in view of the chapel; however, two grave sites were found outside of this area. Russian Orthodox tradition states that the deceased must be buried in view of a chapel, so it was unexpected to find people buried out of view of it. It is not known why these people were buried outside the main cemetery, but it is possibly because they were buried before the arrival of the Russian Orthodox community and their religious beliefs.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery served as a burial ground for both Russians and native people, showing no differentiation of rank or status. Out of the 135 graves excavated, 131 had human remains, and four were empty. The empty graves may have been due to poor preservation of human remains or possibly, the earlier removal of the human remains to a different grave site. Based on the grave dimensions, it is estimated that half of the burials were children, who represented 47% of the population of Fort Ross by 1838. Studies show that disease was a common reason for death, as well as various accidents and drownings.</p><br>
<p>Bodies were generally buried in redwood coffins, or at the very least, a cloth shroud. In 56% of graves, crosses or religious medallions were found. Other items that have been found in the graves have included buttons, glass beads, earrings, dishes, and cloth. Unfortunately, the bones were not preserved very well due to the soil having a high level of acidity. Furthermore, redwood tends to be acidic, so this contributed to the lower levels of bone preservation.</p><br>
<p>In consultation with Reverend Vladimir Derugin of the ROC, researchers were able to confirm that the burial practices followed traditional Russian Orthodox canon and norms, despite having been conducted in a remote frontier outpost. At the conclusion of the project, all unearthed individuals were returned to their grave sites, and a religious reburial ceremony was conducted.</p><br>
<h3>Conflicting views on the excavation</h3><br>
<p>When archaeologists began excavating the cemetery, there were many stakeholders they had to consider. Fort Ross is owned by the state of California and is operated by the department of parks and recreation, so they had to give permission in order for the excavation to occur. Also, the Fort Ross Interpretive Association (FRIA), who work with the park to communicate the history to the public were a part of it. Since Native American remains were involved, archaeologists had to get permissions from the nearest descendants they could find; in this case, it was the Kashaya Pomo. Another group that had a part in the excavation was the Kodiak Area Native Association (KANA), because remains of Alaskan natives were buried in the cemetery. The Russian Orthodox Church was also involved because the fort was a Russian outpost; however, there were two separate groups within the church that both laid claim to the cemetery, so archaeologists consulted with them both as to avoid friction.</p><br>
<p>With all of these different groups involved, there were a few conflicting views on what to do with the remains and how to treat them. For instance, the Russians thought that everyone buried in the cemetery, including the Kashaya and Alaskan natives, were a part of the Orthodox religion, meaning they had converted. However, many of the Kashaya did not agree with this; they had oral accounts saying that the Kashaya had moved bodies from the Russian cemetery to be buried in a more traditional manner. (Kashaya traditional burial requires that the bodies be cremated.) While some elders were curious about the excavation, to see if the archaeological evidence supported their accounts of Kashaya being removed, the majority did not want their burials excavated. Archaeologists agreed, and said they would do their best to not excavate any Kashaya graves—and if they did, they would rebury them. Later analysis would show that none of the exhumed graves were Kashaya. In contrast, the Russians supported the excavations, but wanted all of the remains reburied in the graves from which they came.</p><br>
<h2>Windmills at Fort Ross</h2><br>
<p>Much archaeological research has been done at Fort Ross, more recently in search of the windmills. The historical record states there were at least three windmills, possibly four, although the fourth may have been a watermill or a man- or animal-powered mill. The windmills have gained much attention because various accounts of their exact locations are sometimes inconsistent and vague. There was, in fact, one windmill located not far from the northern end of the blockade, which was most likely used to grind wheat and barley flour. Based on the descriptions given by people who visited Fort Ross, it has been concluded that the main windmill, located outside the blockade, was the traditional style Russian. The root word "stolb" means thick vertical pole.</p><br>
<p>At the time, the only mills in California, which was under Spanish/Mexican rule, were either water or animal powered. What made the Russian mills significant is that they were the first windmills in California. The Russian needed a very large center post which was sunk into the ground and supported the transverse pole. The transverse pole was rotated by the wings of the mill that faced the wind current. Archaeologists are searching for the remains of this center post, which would have left a significant indentation in the ground.</p><br>
<p>In October 2012 a modern interpretation of one of Fort Ross windmills was erected and placed near the parking lot and visitors center of the State Historic Park. The windmill was built completely by hand, using the same methods that were presumed to have been used in the days of the Russian American settlement. Its pieces were constructed in Russia and shipped to California, where it was fully assembled and now stands as the only working Russian windmill of this style. It has been pointed out, however, that this is a replica of a 19th or early 20th century Vologda Province windmill, and only bears a slight resemblance to the windmill recorded at Fort Ross in 1841 by Ilya Voznesensky. In Voznesenskys painting the roof is hipped rather than peaked, and there is no roofed exterior porch on the upper left-hand side. The supporting cribbing is covered in the 1841 rendition, and the proportions are noticeably different. The placement near the parking lot at Fort Ross also conflicts with archeologists&#39; views of the actual site of the windmill as portrayed by Voznesensky.</p><br>
<h2>The Fort Ross Archaeological Project</h2><br>
<p>The Fort Ross Archeological Project began in the summer of 1988, directed by Professor Kent Lightfoot of the University of California, Berkeley. The purpose was to "examine the nature, extent, and direction of cultural change among native workers in a pluralistic, hierarchically structured, mercantile colony." In addition to the Archaeological Research Facility and Department of Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley, the project saw collaboration with the California Department of Parks and Recreation, Sonoma State University, Santa Rosa Junior College, the Sakhalin Regional Museum, and the Kodiak Area Native Association.</p><br>
<p>In 1998 and 1989, an encompassing survey of the original 2.8 square kilometer property of Fort Ross Historic State Park was done to determine the size, layout, and archaeological components of native settlements, before and after the establishment of Fort Ross. After dividing the park into a dozen survey blocks in the area of the reconstructed stockade complex, a pedestrian survey of each respective block was undertaken to detect any archaeological remnants. Thirty sites were recorded, mapped, and underwent surface collection. Including the use of historical maps and any presence of temporally-sensitive project point and historical artifact types, several methods were used in determining the chronology of sites; however, this was done primarily by the hydration band measurements of obsidian artifacts. The Obsidian Hydration Laboratory of Sonoma State University completed research of the hydration rates of several local sources of obsidian. 329 obsidian artifacts were collected from Fort Ross sites and analyzed by the laboratory. Sites were dated from the range of 6000-3000 B.C. to A.D. 1812 and onward.</p><br>
<p>Further lithic materials were analyzed, employing the use of artifact classes as published by the California Office of Historic Preservation. Faunal remains were identified to the most viable discrete taxon and element, with counts made of the minimum number of individuals.</p><br>
<p>Of the 30 sites cataloged, 27 were used primarily by native Alaskans in addition to, or alternatively, native Californians. Of these 27, eight were determined to have belonged to the historical period including the Russian occupation of Fort Ross.</p><br>
<h3>Native Alaskan Village Site and Fort Ross Beach Site</h3><br>
<p>Designated CA-SON-1897/H and CA-SON-1898/H respectively, the Native Alaskan Village site and the Fort Ross Beach Site are two sites of particular interest. The former is situated on top of a raised marine terrace and located 30 meters south of the Russian stockade, and the latter resides below the former, traversing a cliff face 30 meters long.</p><br>
<p>The Native Alaskan Village site was the subject of an investigation into its spatial organization, seeing "topographic mapping of surface features, systematic surface collection and generation of artifact distribution maps, and geophysical investigations involving both magnetometer and soil resistance survey." The aforementioned surface collection resulted in the discovery of "glass beads, ceramics, projectile points, flakes, and worked bone artifacts over a 200 x 40 m area."</p><br>
<p>In addition, 13 surface features were identified and mapped in the Native Alaskan Village site. Two of these were excavated, leading to the unearthing of portions of a set of pit houses. These were referred to as the East Central and South Pit features. A redwood fence line outside the South Pit feature was also discovered, as well as several contextually rich deposits which contained dense concentrations of faunal elements and artifacts, with two in particular being found in the field seasons of 1992 and 1993. Referred to as the East Central, South, and Abalone Dump "Bone Beds," after extensive 3D mapping of these deposits, crews cataloged thousands of shells, bones, fire-cracked rocks, chipped-stone, ground-stone, glass, metal, and ceramic. These deposits led to the detection of several houses that had been abandoned, and thus were interpreted as being household dumps.</p><br>
<p>The Fort Ross Beach site saw subsurface testing which led to the discovery of a wide range of faunal remains from domesticated, terrestrial, and sea mammals to fish, birds, and shells of several organisms. Among other finds, a multitude of historical ceramics, lithics, glass beads, glass beverage container fragments, bone artifacts were discovered, as well as debitage from bone tool production. Investigation led to the belief that the site was formed for the most part by activities which had occurred at the base of the cliff and from refuse being discarded over the cliff from the Native Alaskan Village.</p><br>
<h2>Colonial administrators</h2><br>
<p>Fort Ross colony had five administrators:</p><br>
<p>Ivan A. Kuskov, 1812–1821</p><br>
<p>Karl J. von Schmidt, 1821–1824</p><br>
<p>Pavel I. Shelikhov, 1824–1830</p><br>
<p>Petr S. Kostromitinov, 1830–1838</p><br>
<h2>Derived place names</h2><br>
<p>Along with its status as a National Historic Landmark, the fort itself and the surrounding area are part of Fort Ross State Historic Park. Fort Ross also designates the small rural community that exists between the towns of Cazadero, Jenner, and Gualala, with the Fort Ross Elementary School at its center.</p><br>
<h2>Milestones</h2><br>
<h3>16th and 17th centuries</h3><br>
<p>1542–1543: Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo visits San Diego, Farallon Islands, Cape Mendocino, Cape Blanco.</p><br>
<p>1579–1639: Russian frontiersmen penetrate eastward to Siberia and the Pacific.</p><br>
<p>1602: Sebastián Vizcaíno explores to the Columbia River region, naming the Farallon Islands, Point Reyes and the Rio Sebastian (present-day Russian River).</p><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>1728: Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov explore Bering Strait.</p><br>
<p>1741–1742: Bering and Chirikov claim Russian America (Alaska) for Russia.</p><br>
<p>1769: Gaspar de Portola traveling overland discovers San Francisco Bay.</p><br>
<p>1775: Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra anchors in outer Bodega Bay, trades with the local Indians.</p><br>
<p>1784: Russians Grigoriy Shelikhov and his wife Nataliya establish a base on Kodiak Island.</p><br>
<p>1799: Russian American Company (with manager Aleksandr Baranov) establishes Novo Arkhangelsk (New Archangel, now Sitka, Alaska).</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>1806: Nikolai Rezanov, Imperial Ambassador to Japan and director of the Russian American Company, visits the Presidio of San Francisco.</p><br>
<p>1806–1813: American ships bring Russians and Alaska Natives on 12 California fur hunts.</p><br>
<p>1808–1811: Ivan Kuskov lands in Bodega Bay (Port Rumiantsev), builds structures and hunts in the region.</p><br>
<p>1812, March 15: Ivan Kuskov with 25 Russians and 80 Native Alaskans arrives at Port Rumiantsev and proceeds north to establish Fortress Ross.</p><br>
<p>1812, September 11: The Fortress is dedicated on the name-day of Emperor Aleksandr I.</p><br>
<p>1816: Russian exploring expedition led by Captain Otto von Kotzebue visits California with naturalists Adelbert von Chamisso, Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, and artist Louis Choris.</p><br>
<p>1817, September 22: Russian Chief Administrator Captain Leonty Gagemeister concludes treaty with local tribal chiefs for possession of property near Fortress Ross. First such treaty concluded with native peoples in California.</p><br>
<p>1818: The Rumiantsev, first of four ships built at Fortress Ross. The Buldakov, Volga and Kiakhta follow, as well as several longboats.</p><br>
<p>1821: Russian Imperial decree gives Native Alaskans and Creoles civil rights protected by law</p><br>
<p>1836: Fr. Veniaminov (St. Innocent) visits Fort Ross, conducts services, and carries out census.</p><br>
<p>1841, December: Rotchev sells Fort Ross and accompanying land to John Sutter.</p><br>
<h3>20th and 21st centuries</h3><br>
<p>1903: California Landmarks League purchases the 2.5 acre fort property from George W. Call for $3000.</p><br>
<p>1906: The fort is deeded to what becomes the California State Parks Commission.</p><br>
<p>1906, April 18: California&#39;s major historical earthquake causes considerable damage to the buildings of the fort compound.</p><br>
<p>1916: Fort Ross is partially restored.</p><br>
<p>1970: Fires at Fort Ross destroy the chapel and damage the roof of the Rotchev House.</p><br>
<p>1971: Fort Ross is once again only partially restored.</p><br>
<p>1974: Restored Fort Ross officially reopened.</p><br>
<p>1976–1979: CA 1 demolished the road in the middle of the fort.</p><br>
<p>2010: The Rotchev House is opened as a house museum</p><br>
<p>2010: Memorandum of Agreement signed in San Francisco between the State of California and Renova Group, a Russian entrepreneurial company, whereby the Russian company undertakes to fund the continuing upkeep and operation of Fort Ross.</p><br>
<p>2012, March 15: Bodega Bay (Port Rumiantsev) celebrates its 200th anniversary as the main port of Russian California.</p><br>
<p>2012, April: The Russian River at Jenner celebrates its 200th anniversary of being named Slavyanka by Ivan Kuskov</p><br>
<p>2012, August: an American delegation visits Totma, Russia on its 875th anniversary and 200th anniversary of Fort Ross founding by Ivan Kuskov, a Tot&#39;ma native.</p><br>
<p>2012: Fort Ross State Historic Park celebrated is 200 year bicentennial of the Russian settlement in a historic two-day event that was attended by over 6,500 people.</p><br>
<p>2012, September: The Kashaya expedition to Russia. An unofficial delegation from California was hosted in Russia marking the Kashaya&#39;s first ever trip to Russia.</p><br>
<p>2012, October: A working interpretation of the original windmill was built and dedicated at the park.</p><br>
<h2>Annual international conference on Russian–USA relations</h2><br>
<p>Starting from 2012, Fort Ross Conservancy has been hosting the Fort Ross Dialogue annual international conference on US–Russian Relations and Fort Ross Festival, co-sponsored by Transneft, Chevron and Sovcomflot. The first Russia-based meeting within the framework of the Dialogue was held in Pskov (Russian Federation) on 29 and 30 May 2017. The first day of the Forum was marked by the panel discussion "Towards each other: Russian trailblazers and American pioneers: similarities and dissimilarities of Russian and US experience in arranging museum operations, financing structure, role of the state and private business in promoting cultural sites". On the second day, the forum participants representing business circles and the expert community of Russia and the USA reviewed the interaction potential between the two nations in energy industry at the panel discussion "The energy sector as an important element Russian and USA geopolitics".</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<h2>California State Landmark</h2><br>
<h3>Fort Ross State Historic Park</h3><br>
<p>The 3,000 acre site was purchased in 1906 by the State of California, to preserve the archaeological remains of the area. Later, more land was purchased and the park now includes some of the surrounding lands which although not originally part of the compound, still hold valuable archaeological evidence.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ross is located on the coast, meaning it is vulnerable to erosion and other natural processes, such as acidic soil, wildfires, and even the destruction of animals like gophers. The other possible disturbance comes from cultural processes; that is, humans and their actions. Harmful activities include illegal collecting and, more generally, the wear and tear that occurs simply from people visiting the site.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The National Weather Service has maintained a cooperative weather station at Fort Ross for many years. Based on those observations, Fort Ross has cool, damp weather most of the year. Fog and low overcast is common throughout the year. There are occasional warm days in the summer, which also tend to be relatively dry except for drizzle from heavy fogs or passing showers. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Fort Ross has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb).</p><br>
<p>In January, average temperatures range from 57.0 &deg;F to 41.5 &deg;F. In July, average temperatures range from 66.3 &deg;F to 47.8 &deg;F. September is actually the warmest month with average temperatures ranging from 68.1 &deg;F to 48.7 &deg;F. There are an average of only 0.2 days with highs of 90 °F (32 °C) or higher and 5.8 days with lows of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower. The record high temperature was 97 &deg;F on September 3, 1950. The record low temperature was 20 &deg;F on December 8, 1972.</p><br>
<p>Average annual precipitation is 37.64 in, falling on an average of 81 days each year. The wettest year was 1983 with 71.27 in and the driest year was 1976 with 17.98 in. The wettest month on record was February 1998 with 21.68 in. The most rainfall in 24 hours was 5.70 in on January 14, 1956. Snow rarely falls at Fort Ross; the record snowfall was 0.4 in on December 30, 1987.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Fort Ross serves as the backdrop in the short story "Facts Relating to the Arrest of Dr. Kalugin," part of Kage Baker&#39;s series of science fiction stories concerning "The Company".</p><br>
<p>Fort Ross is featured in a 1991 episode of California&#39;s Gold with Huell Howser.</p><br>
<p>Bale Grist Mill State Historic Park is a California state park located in Napa County between St. Helena and Calistoga. The park is the site of a water-powered grist mill that was built in 1846 is one of only two water-driven mills remaining west of the Mississippi River.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The mill was established in 1846 by Dr. Edward Turner Bale on property in Rancho Carne Humana land grant. Bale lived near the site until his death in 1849.</p><br>
<p>The gristmill and granary were built with local materials, Douglas firs and coast redwoods. Some timbers were cut to length with the bark left on, while others were roughed out with hand tools. The timbers were notched and held in place with wooden pegs as well as nails and screws. The foundation of the structure is native stone. The mill was powered by a waterwheel, with water diverted from Mill Creek nearby. A ditch carried the water from a millpond to a wooden flume, which brought the water to the top of the waterwheel. The first wheel did not provide enough power during dry summers and was replaced by a larger one, similar to the one at the mill today.</p><br>
<p>The mill was once the center of social activity as Napa Valley settlers gathered to have their corn and wheat ground into meal or flour. Farmers brought grain to the mill where it was placed into the boot of an elevator to be mechanically transported upstairs where it was cleaned by various types of equipment. The slow turning of the old grind stones and the dampness of the mills site gave the meal a special quality for making cornbread, yellowbread, shortening bread and spoonbread. As old timers put it, "When meal comes to you that way, like the heated underside of a settin hen, it bakes bread that makes city bread taste like cardboard."</p><br>
<p>Theodore Benedict Lyman bought the mill and surrounding land in 1871 and passed ownership on to his son, William Whittingham Lyman. The mill remained in operation until 1879.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>After William Lyman&#39;s death, his wife, the former Mrs. Sarah A. Nowland deeded the property to Native Sons of the Golden West, and through them the mill was restored during a period in the late 1960s and early 1970s through efforts of the Native Son Parlors of Napa County, under the leadership of past Grand President Bismarck Bruck, a grandson of Dr. Bale.</p><br>
<p>The mill and its 36-foot water wheel are protected as a state historic landmark and have been partially restored. A trail connects the historic park to Bothe-Napa Valley State Park. Additionally, the park includes the site of the first church in the Napa Valley as well as the Pioneer Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Visitors can hike from the mill on the historic trail to Bothe-Napa Valley State Park, which features extensive picnic facilities and a number of trails. The round trip hike from Bale Grist Mill State Historic Park to Bothe-Napa Valley State Park is approximately two miles.</p><br>
<p>In 2011 during the California budget crisis, the mill and adjacent park were among those targeted to be closed due to lack of funding. The Napa Valley State Park Association petitioned the state to operate the park in order to avoid closure. Milling demonstrations and tours of the historic mill are offered on weekends. Legislation was passed in 2014 to allow sale of flour produced at the mill to the public starting January 1, 2016 in order to help defray maintenance costs and preserve the mill.</p><br>
